Gender and Culture

• Universality - an underlying characteristic of humans that is capable of being applied to all despite differences in experience and upbringing.
• Gender bias is the tendency to treat one group in a different way to the other. Hence the research does not represent the experience/behaviour of different groups.
• Key researchers accused of gender bias:

  Freud (psychodynamic), Kohlberg (stages of moral development).
• Freud's theory reflected the popular notions of the time - where men were more powerful and educated hence morally and physically superior to women. He shows Alpha Bias because he devalues women in comparison to men.
• Kohlberg's theory relied primarily on male only longitudinal studies assuming that moral decision making is based on an ethic of justice. He applied this to men and women, however it made women look less morally developed than men.
• Alpha bias gender (exaggerating): Theories that suggest real and distinct differences between men and women. Either enhances or undervalues members of the other sex, but usually females.
• Beta bias gender (minimising): Theories that ignore or minimise differences between sexes. Assumes that research findings apply to both, despite not including one group as part of the research process.
• A consequence of gender bias is androcentrism. Any behaviour that deviates from the male standard is judged as abnormal or inferior. Misunderstanding of female behaviour or pathologized as a sign of mental illness.
• Implications and consequences of gender bias: Fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practices. Provides scientific justification to deny opportunities for women and becomes normal to devalue women as men set standard for normalcy.
• Gender bias leads to sexism in research process: lack of women at research level means concerns may not be voiced. Male researchers will have their work published and research which show gender differences are more likely to appear in journals than without. Lab experiments may also disadvantage women - bias from (male) researchers leads to negative labelling where women are 'incapable' of completing complex tasks. Supports institutional sexism.
• Awareness of gender bias resulted in practical and theoretical applications in research. Current researchers are more careful when designing their studies to avoid gender bias - more studies that explore gender specifics. Awareness has allowed development of criteria to further avoid gender bias. Women should be recognised as participants not just objects of study. Addition of these aspects add depth to psychological theory, giving a more holistic explanation of behaviour.
• Cultural bias: basing research on one culture argues that conclusions are only relevant for that culture. Results will not apply to other cultures - any behaviour that deviates from the standard is judged as abnormal.
• Alpha bias culture: Claim that one culture/social group is superior to others. Emphasises differences between cultural groups.
• Beta bias culture: Applies conclusions of one culture to other cultures - minimises or ignores differences between cultures. i.e. Jahoda's criteria & Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation'.
• Consequence of cultural bias - Ethnocentrism: using one ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgement for other groups. This makes other cultural groups seem inferior to another culture (typically Westernised views).
• Cultural relativism: Appreciating that behaviour varies between cultures.
• Holism: considering all aspects of experience, including culture.
• Universality: believing that some behaviours are the same for all cultures.
• Ethnocentrism: Emphasising the importance of one's own culture.
• Etic approach: looks at behaviour from the outside of the given culture, attempts to describe behaviours that are universal.
• Emic approach: looks within cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
• Ainsworth's research is an example of both beta bias and imposed etic. Attachment reflects only the norms of American culture (ideal attachment type - secure - deviates in different cultures, as in Germany, mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence.) The researcher imposed their own cultural understanding on the rest of the world, making their result the 'norm'.
• We must be cautious in assuming all behaviour is culturally relative. Cultural bias and imposed etic remind researchers about the importance of appreciating culture, but it can't be assumed that there is no universality. Ekman suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions are largely universal. In order to fully appreciate human behaviour we must consider that some behaviour is universal.
• Advantages of increasing awareness of cultural bias. Identifying possible issues has increased understanding of cultural impacts and specific cultural behaviours. Particularly in the diagnosis of mental illness - reduction in misdiagnosis as culturally specific behaviours no longer misinterpreted as symptoms of mental illness (e.g hearing voices in schizophrenia). Improves validity and reliability of diagnostic process. Benefits for validity in increasing cultural sensitivity.
• Unfamiliarity with research tradition. Conducting research in cultures with historical familiarity with research process is not reflective of cultures with no such historical familiarity. People may have different faith in scientific testing, leading to issues with demand characteristics. Affects the validity of cross-cultural research.