Biological Molecules

• Carbon-based life


  Life forms that are primarily composed of carbon atoms, including all known living organisms on Earth
• Periodic table


  A tabular arrangement of chemical elements, organized based on their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties
• Outer shell

  The outermost electron shell of an atom, which determines its chemical behavior and reactivity
• Covalent bonds


  Chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms, resulting in the formation of stable molecules
• Complex molecules


  Molecules with a large number of atoms and/or a high degree of structural complexity, often exhibiting diverse functions in biological systems
• Hexose monosaccharide


  A monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, commonly found in various carbohydrates and serving as an important energy source
• Pentose monosaccharide


  A monosaccharide with five carbon atoms, playing crucial roles in nucleic acids and other biological processes
• α-glucose

  A glucose molecule with the hydroxyl group on carbon-1 positioned below the plane of the ring, contributing to its specific properties and functions
• β-glucose

  A glucose molecule with the hydroxyl group on carbon-1 positioned above the plane of the ring, influencing its distinct characteristics and functions
• Disaccharide


  A sugar molecule composed of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond, serving as a source of energy and structural components
• Polysaccharide


  A polymer made up of many monosaccharides, playing diverse roles such as energy storage and structural support in organisms
• Starch


  A polysaccharide that serves as a storage material in plants, consisting of glucose units and providing a readily available energy source
• Glycogen


  A polysaccharide that serves as a storage material in animals, storing glucose in liver and muscle cells for energy release
• Cellulose


  A polysaccharide that is a major component of cell walls in plants, providing structural support and rigidity to plant cells
• Condensation reactions


  Chemical reactions that join molecules together, releasing a small molecule such as water as a byproduct
• Hydrolysis reaction


  A chemical reaction that breaks a molecule apart by the addition of water, often used to break down complex molecules into simpler components
• Glycosidic bond


  A covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another molecule, such as another carbohydrate or a protein
• Maltose


  A disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules linked by an α-1,4-glycosidic bond, commonly found in germinating seeds and malted grains
• Sucrose

  A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose molecules joined by an α-1,2-glycosidic bond, serving as a common table sugar
• Lactose


  A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose molecules linked by a β-1,4-glycosidic bond, found in milk and dairy products
• Amylose


  A linear form of starch composed of α-glucose molecules joined by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds, contributing to the structure and function of starch granules
• Amylopectin


  A branched form of starch composed of α-glucose molecules linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and α-1,6-glycosidic branches, enabling efficient energy storage in plants
• Deoxyribose


  A pentose sugar found in DNA, replacing the ribose sugar in RNA, and playing a crucial role in the structure and function of the genetic material
• Cellulose microfibrils


  Tightly crosslinked bundles of cellulose molecules that provide mechanical strength to cell walls, contributing to the rigidity and support of plant cells
• Lactose


  A disaccharide carbohydrate found in milk.
• Hydrolysis


  The process of breaking down lactose into its component sugars, glucose and galactose, by adding water.
• β glucose


  One of the sugars produced when lactose is hydrolyzed.
• Galactose


  One of the sugars produced when lactose is hydrolyzed.
• Lactase


  An enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.
• Protein synthesis


  The process by which lactase is produced.
• Lactose intolerant


  Individuals who lack the ability to produce sufficient lactase after infancy, leading to difficulty digesting lactose.
• Diffusion


  The process by which lactose breakdown products are absorbed in the small intestine.
• Small intestine


  The organ where lactose breakdown products are absorbed.
• Villi

  Finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase the surface area for absorption of lactose breakdown products.
• Diarrhea


  Loose and watery stools caused by increased water retention due to undigested lactose.
• Water potential


  The measure of the potential energy of water to move from one area to another.
• Gut bacteria


  Bacteria in the gut that ferment lactose anaerobically.
• Milk allergy


  An immune system response to proteins found in milk.
• Cellulose


  A complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants.
• Cellulase


  An enzyme that breaks down cellulose into glucose.