Types of research methods

• Experimental method


  Looks for differences between 2 conditions and establishes cause and effect
• Lab experiments

  Set in controlled conditions where the experimenter controls what participants experience
• Field experiments


  an experiment done in the setting where we would normally expect the behaviour to occur
• Quasi experiments


  Studying a pre-existing difference between people
• Natural experiments


  Takes advantage of a situation that has already occurred and would have if the experiment wasn't done
• Strengths of experiments

  Control over extraneous variables, objective, standardised and easy to replicate
• Weaknesses of experiments

  Low ecological validity, demand characteristics, participant variables
• Independent variable


  Altered or changed by the experimenter - cause
• Dependent variable


  Measured by the experimenter - effect
• Extraneous variables


  Variables that may affect the experiment, considered beforehand and the experimenter tries to control them
• Confounding variables

  Variables that have affected the experiment and are considered after the study has been done
• Control group


  The group who does the task in the same conditions but the independent variable is not manipulated - their results are compared to the groups where the IV was manipulated
• Standardisation

  All participants are given the same instructions under the same conditions, makes the study replicable
• Randomisation


  Conditions of an experiment are decided using a random method such as tossing a coin
• Counterbalancing

  Half of the participants work under condition A first and half work under condition B first - balances order effects
• Demand characteristics

  When there may be cues for the participant to work out the aims of the experiments, and they may try to change their behaviour to help or hinder the study
• Experimenter effects


  If the experimenter expects the results to turn out in a particular way they may influence the results
• Operationalisation


  Writing hypotheses so the IV and DV are clear and specific
• Observations

  Watching and recording behaviour
• Structured observation


  Key behaviours to be observed are determined beforehand
• Unstructured observation

  Trying to observe and record all actions of a group of people rather than having something specific to focus on
• Naturalistic observation


  an observation done in the environment where we would expect the behaviour to occur
• Controlled observation

  In a controlled environment such as a lab
• Overt observation


  Participants know they are being observed
• Covert observation


  Participants are unaware they are being observed
• Participant observation


  When the researcher is part of the group they are observing
• Non-participant observation


  When the researcher is not part of the group they are observing
• Behavioural categories


  Looking for a range of possible behaviours that occur
• Event sampling

  Tallying the number of times a specific behaviour occurs
• Time sampling

  Behaviour is recorded at specified intervals e.g. every 30 seconds
• Inter-rater reliability

  Checking for consistency between what the researchers are observing
• Strengths of observations

  - high ecological validity if naturalistic

  - often the only practical or ethical technique

  - using more than one researcher can improve reliability
• Weaknesses of observations

  - may miss key behaviours

  - lack of control over extraneous variables

  - doesn't show cause and effect
• Ways to overcome missing behaviours in observations


  Using more than one observer or using time sampling
• Ways to overcome reliability in observations

  Pilot study to ensure categories are easier to use, train all observers to check for consistency
• Ways to overcome demand characteristics in observations

  Conduct a covert observation
• Self reports


  Asking people their opinion about a particular topic
• 3 types of interviews + explanations

  Structured - pre-determined set of questions

  Unstructured - most questions depend on the answers given by the participant

  Semi-structured - combination of prepared and follow up questions
• Questionnaires

  Obtain feelings and opinions on particular issues
• Respondents


  Participants answering the questionnaire