the real big one!!!! (im lazy af)

• binary fission?

  • mitosis for prokaryotic cells
  • dna replicates > sticks to cell membrane
  • cell elongates > invagination > cross wall
  • 2 daughter cells
  • no centrioles, linear chromosomes, nucleus
• apoptosis?


  programmed cell death

  • replacing old damaged cells (cancerous)
  • removing cells for development (frogs)
• equilibrium?

  • state of chemical reaction where forward and reverse reaction occur at same rate
  • no visible change
  • closed system
  • constant concentration
• codon?


  three adjacent bases in mRNA

  amino acid code

  can be signal for start/stop
• meiosis?

  1. pro I: dna condense, homologous pairs > crossing over, no membrane, centrioles at poles
  2. meta I: pairs in centre, spindles to centromeres
  3. ana I: chromosomes pulled, constriction
  4. telo I: membrane reforms > cytokinesis
  5. pro II: homologous chromatids separate, no membrane
  6. meta II: chromatids at centre, spindles
  7. ana II: repeat
  8. telo II: repeat
• TSAR DADDY NICHOLAS II?

  • easily influenced, autocratic rule
  • suspicious of change > no change to repressive policies
  • "what is going to happen to (...) all of Russia? (...) I know nothing of the business of ruling?"
• genetic diversity?

  • crossing over: proximity of homologous chromosomes > genetic info swap
  • random assortment: random alignment of homologous pairs
• histone proteins?


  proteins that DNA wraps around to be stored in nucleus

  > nucleosomes

  8 histone core
• le chatelier's principle?


  if a system @ equilibrium is changed > system adjusts for new position of equilibrium

  • conc: increase > increase in consumption
  • pressure: increase > increase in products with less particles
• non-dysfunction & aneuploidy?


  process of failing to separate chromosomes > abnormal number of chromosomes

  • aneuploidy: presence of abnormal number of chromosomes
  • monosomy: loss
  • trisomy: gain
• TRANScription?

  1. RNA polymerase binds to promoter, helicase unwinds DNA
  2. polymerase moves 3' > 5' to synthesise RNA in 5' > 3'
  3. polyermase at stop sequence, polyermase and RNA detach
  4. removal of introns, exons join
  5. RNA leaves nucleus
• pyrimidines?


  one nitrogen ring

  cytosine & thymine
• purines?


  two nitrogen rings

  guanine & adenine
• DNA REPLICATION?

  1. helicase unwinds and breaks H bonds
  2. primase synthesises primers (points for polymerase)
  3. leading strand: continuous addition of nucleotide in 5' > 3'
  4. lagging: okazaki fragments (because the strand is 3' > 5')

  4. ligase joins fragments with phosphodiester bonds
• promoter?


  particular nucleotide sequence at gene sequence start
• coding/template strand?


  coding: strand that is being transcribed

  template: strand that has shit put on it
• equilibrium constant (Kc)?


  how much product formed at equilibrium at specific temp

  • K < 1 : more reactants
  • K = 1 : equal products, reactants
  • K > 1 : more products
• mitosis?


  1. DNA replication
  2. DNA condenses, no nuclear membrane, centrioles at poles
  3. centromeres & spindles
  4. chromosomes to poles
  5. reformed nuclear membrane, uncondensed chromosome
  6. division into two
• russia's population in an oddly specific time frame?


  1815: 40 mill > 1914: 160 mill
• ribosomes?


  made by nucleolus

  rough endoplasmic reticulum

  2 subunits (60s/40s) + middle groove for mRNA
• tRNA?


  made in nucleus > cytoplasm

  anticodon: complimentary to mRNA codons

  3 unpaired bases where specific amino acid being read joins to
• TRANSLATION?


  1. mRNA attaches to ribosome, tRNA brings complimentary amino acids to ribosome > attaches to start codon
  2. second tRNA w/ complimentary anticodon attaches to mRNA codon > growing chain joined by peptide bonds
  3. stop codon > polypeptide released from ribosome > mods
• protein synthesis in prokaryotes?


  transcription/translation simultaneous in cytoplasm
• PLASMIDS?


  closed circular molecules of double helix dna

  inheritable genes

  independent duplication

  antibiotic resistance
• mutation?


  change to nucleotide sequence

  caused by unrepaired damage to DNA/RNA
• causes of mutations?

  radiation, chemicals

  error during replication (insertion/deletion)
• effects of mutation

  cancer

  evolution

  immune system development
• effect of mutated gamete

  inheritable

  occurs in every cell

  could result in new useful alleles
• single nucleotide polymorphism


  one nucleotide changed (one amino acid affected)
• point mutations?


  genome when base pair changed

  silent: no effect

  missense: amino acid sub

  nonsense: stop codon sub

  frameshift: shift in reading strand
• chromosome mutations

  deletion: no segment

  duplication: repeat segment

  inversion: reverse segment

  translocation: move segment from one to other non-homologous
• monoploidy


  one functioning set of chromosomes (one gene per trait)

  male bees
• gene expression?

  process of gene used in synthesis of functional product
• parthenogenesis?

  asexual reproduction from unfertilised egg
• why parthenogenesis occurs?

  environmental: temp change, time, food availabilities

  scarcity of male

  rapid reproduction
• developmental pathway of protein?

  1. primary: sequence of amino acid
  2. secondary: h bonding of backbone > folding in repeated pattern
  3. tertiary: 3D folding pattern due to side-chain interaction
  4. quaternary: protein with 1+ amino acid chain
• epigenetics?


  study of changes in gene expression (not from DNA changes)

  genetic mods from environment, lifestyle, development > inheritable
• DNA METHYLATION?

  cellular process which stops gene expression > no protein attachment to gene > no transcription
• what smoking does to a mfer?

  increases DNA methylation/damage > tumour development

  DNA methyltransferase 3B increases methylation of tumour suppresor genes
• interphase of cell cycle?


  G0: apoptosis, differentiation, senescence

  G1: increases size, organelles replicates, protein organelle synths

  S: DNA synthesis, replication

  G2: second growth, proteins (which condenses chromo) synth