Anatomy And physiology with pathophysiology

• Microscopy is defined as the use of a microscope to magnify objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first individual to utilize the microscope to discover small organisms he called “animalcules”
• Microscope methods include:

  • Bright-field Microscopy
  • Phase contrast Microscopy
  • Fluorescent Microscopy
  • Dark-field Microscopy
  • Electron Microscopy
• Bright Field Microscopy:

  • Widely used in clinical microbiology
  • Bright light passes through a series of lenses that bend the light to magnify the organism present in the specimen
• Total magnification achieved is the product of lenses used:

  • Scanner (4x)
  • Low Power Objective (10x)
  • High Power Objective (40x)
  • Oil Immersion Objective (100x)
• Oil Immersion Objective:

  • Immersion Oil used must have the same refractive index as glass (1.5)
  • Commonly used immersion oils include Cedarwood Oil and Type A and B Synthetic Oils
• Dark Field Microscopy:

  • Employs a luminous object against a background with little to no light
  • Uses a dark filter and condenser to allow light to pass through obliquely
• Phase Contrast Microscopy:

  • Enhances contrast of the specimen to the background by using beams of light passing through the specimen
• Fluorescent Microscopy:

  • Employs dyes or fluorochromes that react with excited light
  • Fluorochrome molecules release visible fluorescent light called fluorescence
• Electron Microscopy:

  • Uses electrons instead of light beams
  • Allows magnification from 10,000x up to 100,000,000x
  • Two common types are Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
• Parts of a Cell:

  • Plasma membrane
  • Cytoplasm
  • Nucleus
• Plasma Membrane:

  • Defines the extent of a cell
  • Encloses cell contents, mediates exchanges with the extracellular environment, and plays a role in cellular communication
• Cell Junctions:

  • Tight Junctions
  • Desmosomes
  • Gap Junctions
• Cytoplasm:

  • Consists of cytosol, organelles, and inclusions
  • Site of most cellular activities
• Organelles in the Cytoplasm:

  • Mitochondria
  • Ribosomes
  • Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
  • Golgi Apparatus
  • Peroxisomes
  • Lysosomes
  • Microtubules
  • Microfilaments
• Steps on focusing using the microscope:

  • Familiarize yourself with the parts of the microscope
  • Prepare your slide
  • Start by turning the revolving nosepiece to its lowest magnification (scanner)
  • Adjust the illuminator and diaphragm until you attain the comfortable level of light
• How to Take Care of Microscope:

  • Handle with care
  • Turn it back to its normal state
  • Look after lenses
  • Keep covered as much as possible
  • Store safely
  • Keep it clean
  • Refer to the manual
  • Maintain your microscope
  • Contact professional
• Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body, including body parts, microscopic organization, and developmental processes
• Gross anatomy refers to the study of observable large body structures
• Hydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of macromolecules by adding water molecules
• Microscopic anatomy refers to the study of body structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
• Microtubules are cylindrical structures made of tubulin proteins
• Systemic anatomy involves the study of body systems like the skeletal system, muscular system, and digestive system
• Microfilaments are fine filaments composed of the protein actin, involved in muscle contraction and intracellular movement
• Regional anatomy involves the study of organization by area such as the head, abdomen, and torso
• Intermediate filaments are stable cytoskeletal elements that resist mechanical forces acting on the cell
• Physiology is the study of the processes or functions of living things, including how the body reacts to stimuli and maintains stable conditions under changing environments
• Centrioles are paired cylindrical bodies composed of nine triplets of microtubules, organizing a microtubule network during mitosis and forming the bases of cilia and flagella
• Systemic physiology focuses on the functions of organ systems, while cellular physiology focuses on functions within cells
• Inclusions in cells include stored nutrients such as lipid droplets, glycogen granules, protein crystals, and pigment granules
• Levels of structural organization include the chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, and organism level
• Cellular extensions include cilia, flagellum, and microvilli
• Characteristics of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell, responsible for transmitting genetic information and providing instructions for protein synthesis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment within the body despite external or internal fluctuations
• The nuclear envelope is a double-layered membrane perforated with pores, controlling the flow of material in and out of the nucleus
• Negative feedback mechanisms are activated to decrease any set point value, while positive feedback mechanisms are activated to further increase any increased point value
• Nucleoplasm is a jelly-like matrix within the nucleus that helps maintain its shape and serves as a transportation medium for molecules
• Anatomical position is the standard position of the body, with supine being lying upwards and prone being lying downwards
• Chromatin is composed of DNA, histone proteins, and RNA chains, and chromosomes contain DNA in a condensed form attached to histone proteins