Sofias MT2 notes

• Protein Synthesis:

  • Occurs in cytoplasm
  • Production of polypeptide chains
  • Process: cell -> nucleus -> chromosome
  • Chromosome is made up of DNA (negative charge due to phosphate) and proteins known as histones (positive charge); DNA wraps around the proteins
  • DNA (deoxyribonucleic sugar) carries genetic information, 2m of DNA in each cell, 2 strands forming a helix, located in the nucleus, nitrogenous bases are A, G, C, T
  • RNA (ribose sugar) located in the nucleus/cytoplasm, 3 kinds of RNA, nitrogenous bases are A, G, C, U
• 3 Kinds of RNA:

  • mRNA (messenger)
  • rRNA (ribosomal)
  • tRNA (transfer)
• Complementary Base Pairs:

  • Adenine - Thymine (DNA)
  • Adenine - Uracil (RNA)
  • Cytosine - Guanine
  • Example: GCC - TAT - AAA = CGG - ATA - TTT
• Genes:

  • Sections/sequences of DNA made up of nucleotide bases controlling the formation of a single polypeptide by protein synthesis
  • Transcription and translation lead to the formation of proteins, so 1 gene = 1 protein
• Amino Acid:

  • Combination of 3 nucleotides in mRNA
• Codon:

  • Consists of 3 bases
  • Found in mRNA
  • Specifies the sequence of amino acids
• Anticodon:

  • Found in tRNA
  • Carries amino acids to the ribosome
  • Each anticodon is complementary to a codon from mRNA
• Process of Protein Synthesis:

  • DNA -> RNA -> Protein
• Process Breakdown:

  Transcription:

  • DNA coding converted into DNA template into mRNA
  • mRNA instructs the cell to make proteins
  • mRNA leaves the nucleus through pores and goes to ribosomes

  Translation:

  • rRNA reads and processes the info/messages brought by mRNA
  • tRNA carries amino acids with anticodon to the right codons from mRNA for accuracy of translated genetic code
  • Relies on base pairing of anticodons in tRNA to codons in mRNA
  • Releases amino acid to complete 1 protein
• Examples of Protein Synthesis Complementary Base Pairing:

  • UAA, UAG, UGA have STOP as their amino acids and won’t be read
  • DNA (coding): TAC ATG GGG GAA
  • DNA (template strand): ATG TAG CCC CTT
  • mRNA: UAC AUG GGG GAA
  • tRNA: AUG UAC CCC CUU
  • Amino Acids: Tyr Met Gly Glu
• Population:

  • Group of individuals of a single species
• Factors that Affect Population:

  • Nationality (increases) - birth rate
  • Mortality (decreases) - death rate
  • Immigration (increases) - individuals coming to a new place and staying permanently
  • Emigration (decreases) - individuals leaving their current place permanently
• Distribution of Individuals in a Population:

  • Clumped Dispersion
  • Uniform Dispersion
  • Random Dispersion
• Growth Curves:

  • J-shaped Curve
  • S-shaped Curve (Logistics)
• Limiting Factors:

  • Any factor in the environment that limits population growth
• Environmental Resistance Factors:

  • Density-Independent
  • Density-Dependent
• Carrying Capacity:

  • Ability of an environment to support a certain population of species
• Human Population:

  • Improved health and technology have lowered death rates
• Demography:

  • Population for human species
• Ecological Footprint:

  • Represents the amount of productive land needed to support the population’s needs
• Evidences of Evolution:

  • Comparative Embryology
  • Comparative Morphology and Analogy
  • Biochemical Evidence (DNA)
  • Fossil Records
  • Observable Events
• Genetic Variation:

  • Species’ DNA is mutated through the need of adapting to a new environment
• Speciation:

  • Evolutionary process giving rise to new species
  • Group of organisms capable of interbreeding
• Types of Speciation:

  • Allopatric Speciation
  • Sympatric Speciation
• Adaptive Radiation:

  • Diversification into new forms due to adaptation
• Tempo of Speciation:

  • Gradualism
  • Punctuated Equilibrium
• Moles:

  • Units for moles
• Percentage Composition Calculation:

  • Calculate the percentage of mass each element
• Theoretical and Actual:

  • Actual mass vs. theoretical mass
• Acclimation:

  • Response of an animal to tolerate a change in a single factor of its environment
• Tolerance and Law of Tolerance:

  • Range of min. and max. level of environmental factors determining survival
• Speciation:

  • Adapting leads to genetic variation which leads to speciation
• Evidences of Evolution:

  • Evolution is any change in inherited characteristics or traits within a certain population of species across generations
• Human Population:

  • Carrying capacity of Earth for humans is uncertain