In the U.S., children are typicallyassigned to schools based on their residential location
Roughly 70% of U.S. children attend their neighborhoodschool
Disadvantages seen in residential neighborhoods tend to get reflected in schools
Schools often reproduce, rather than reduce, inequality
Schooling can perpetuate social and economic inequalities within and across generations
Students from different class backgrounds are provided with different types of education, preparing them for different types of employment
Schools sort students based on social class and teach the skills necessary for different job roles
Equality ensures everyone has the same resources, while equity ensures everyone has the resources they need for success
Being poor in a high-poverty neighborhood is more detrimental to children than being poor in a low-poverty or mixed-income neighborhood
Neighborhoods can affect outcomes such as educational attainment, race relations, health, exposure to violence, employment, and housing stability
Neighborhood effect refers to the independent impact neighborhoods have on life outcomes
Mechanisms through which neighborhoods influence individuals include institutions, social interactions, norms of behavior, and resources
Urban poverty became more concentrated in the 1970s and 1980s due to deindustrialization and other factors
Structural transformation of the economy led to deindustrialization, impacting cities, particularly in the Northeast and Midwest
Racial residential segregation was a key factor in the increased concentration of poverty, especially black poverty, in the U.S.
Neighborhood conditions are passed down from generation to generation, affecting contextual mobility
Inherited neighborhood inequality can be explained by discrimination in housing, racial differences in income/wealth, and changing neighborhoods
Current levels of inequality reflect structures of opportunities available over multiple generations
Residential segregation refers to the degree of physical separation between different social groups in a given area
Measuring racial residential segregation includes factors like evenness, exposure, centralization, clustering, and concentration
The Fair Housing Act of 1968 aimed to prohibit discrimination in housing, but segregation has persisted
Two perspectives on explaining residential segregation are the Spatial Assimilation Model and the Place Stratification Model
Racial/ethnic minorities are sorted by place according to the group's relative standing in society, limiting socially mobile members from residing in the same communities as comparable whites
Whites use segregation to maintain social distance, resulting from structural forces tied to racial prejudice and discrimination that preserve the status advantages of whites
Two mechanisms of segregation: Individual preferences and institutional discrimination
Place Stratification Model A: Individual Preferences
Studies examine respondents' comfort with and willingness to enter neighborhoods with varying degrees of integration
Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians demonstrate higher preferences for more integrated neighborhoods
Whites exhibit the strongest preferences for same-race neighbors, and blacks the weakest
Preferences vary based on who the out-group is
Possible explanations for preferences = prejudice:
1. Ethnocentrism ("birds of a feather")
2. Race as a proxy
3. Prejudice
Place Stratification Model B: Discrimination
Historical evidence of institutional discrimination in sales, rentals, and lending reveal discrimination well established
Redlining and steering are practices that contributed to the creation of segregated neighborhoods
Steering:
Real estate brokers guide prospective home buyers to certain neighborhoods based on race
Advising customers to purchase homes in certain neighborhoods because of their race
Failing to show buyers homes or tell them about neighborhoods based on their race
Place Stratification Model B: Institutional Discrimination
Plenty of evidence suggests that institutional discrimination still exists, despite the Fair Housing Act
Audit studies show disparities in housing experiences for Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites
Individual vs. structural discrimination:
Individual discrimination: Negative treatment based on perceived characteristics
Structural discrimination: Unequal treatment built into society's institutions, does not require individual prejudiced motivations
Structural discrimination in housing:
Historical examples include discriminatory loan programs and practices like redlining and steering
Contemporary examples include "reverse redlining" and predatory lending
The value of school integration:
Linked to reducing inequality and improving multicultural awareness
Academic benefits for students of color in integrated schools without detriment to white students
The push for integration:
Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) was a landmark case ruling racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional
Different forms of segregation: De jure (mandated by law) and de facto (in practice)
Forms of school segregation:
1. Interdistrict segregation
2. Intradistrict segregation
3. Within individual schools, including tracking
The aftermath of Brown v. Board of Ed:
Desegregation efforts like forced busing in Boston
Resistance to busing in Boston due to racism and class issues
Milliken v. Bradley (1974):
Supreme Court ruling that desegregation efforts could not be extended to include suburban schools
Years of discriminatory practices in housing led to extremely segregated schools
The state was looked upon to remedy the problem by busing students across district lines
The Supreme Court ruled that suburban districts were not at fault for school segregation and not responsible for fixing it