psychopathology

• Abnormality


  A psychological or behavioural state leading to impairment and distress to others.
• Deviation from ideal mental health


  The failure to meet criteria of the perfect psychological well-being. This behaviour may make others feel threatened.
• strength of Deviation from ideal mental health definition

  It focuses on the positives rather than the negatives and focuses on what is desirable rather than what is undesirable.
• Failure to function adequately


  An inability to cope/perform behaviours necessary for day to day living. For example, the inability to maintain a relationship or hold down a job.
• Weakness of the definition, failure to function adequately

  Very subjective - There are many 'functioning' alcoholics, cocaine and heroin addicts and thus such behaviours would not meet the criteria for this definition yet 'substance dependence' is recognised as a psychological disorder.
• Deviation from social norms

  Behaviour which violates the accepted social norms e.g not appearing naked in public.
• Weakness of deviation from social norms

  It is bound by culture. Social norms are culturally relative; they are different in different cultures.
• Statistical infrequency

  Behaviour that is classed as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon and if the individual falls outside the 'normal distribution' they are perceived as abnormal.
• Weakness of statistical infrequency

  It ignores the desirability of the behaviour.

  For example, sometimes a behaviour that is very rare may be very desirable, such as a very high IQ or an unusual talent for memory.
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder


  An anxiety disorder that has two main components: obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are reoccurring and persistent thoughts, whereas compulsions are repetitive behaviours.
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD


  Centres on the compulsive behaviour.

  
  

  1) compulsions are repetitive in nature so the sufferers will feel compelled to repeat a behaviour.

  2) hinder everyday functioning

  3) social impairment- limit the ability to form relationships
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  1) obsessions are persistent and/ or forbidden thoughts and ideas, which cause levels of anxiety in OCD sufferers.

  2) can also lead to depression as the anxiety can result in low mood and loss of pleasure in everyday activities.
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  1) Obsessive thoughts are the main cognitive feature of OCD e.g fear of contamination and dirt.

  2) Most sufferers understand their thoughts and intrusive nature so they realise their compulsions are inappropriate
• The biological approach to explaining OCD

  
  

  1) Genetic explanation


  Genetic explanations suggest OCD is inherited through genetic transmission. It is unlikely that single genes cause OCD, more that it is a combination of genes ( polygentic) that determines an individuals level of vulnerability to develop the disorder.
• 2) Neural explanation


  Focus on neurotransmitters as well as brain structures.

  - Neural explanations suggest that abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, in particular serotonin and dopamine are implicated in OCD.

  - Also suggests that particular regions of the brain, in particular the basal ganglia and orbitfrontal cortex are involved in OCD.
• Evaluation of biological explanation for OCD


  A limitation is that there is strong competition from psychological explanations.

  The two process model can be applied to OCD, where an association is learnt between for example dirt and anxiety, and then a link is learned between hand-washing and reducing anxiety resulting in a compulsion.
• Biological approach/ treatments to OCD

  Drug therapy

  - Antidepressant drugs are used to treat OCD such as SSRI's ( selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) which elevate levels of serotonin and cause the orbital frontal cortex to function at more normal levels.

  - the most common SSRI is prozac and treatment usually lasts 12-16 weeks.

  -Antipsychotic drugs that have dopamine lowering effect have also proven useful in treating OCD.
• Evaluation of Drug therapy as a treatment for OCD

  They can cause side effects and there can be a relapse when coming off medication
• Depression


  Depression is a mood disorder characterised by feelings of hopelessness. Two main types:

  1) unipolar

  2)bipolar (manic)

  
  

  positive symptoms:

  - depressed mood

  -lack of pleasure in activities

  -loss of energy

  -feelings of worthlessness
• Bipolar depression


  A form of depression characterised by periods of heightened moods and periods of hopelessness.
• Unipolar depression


  A form of depression occurring without the mania ( the mood remains at one emotional state)
• Behavioural characteristics of depression

  1) reduction/ loss of energy and constantly feeling tired

  2) disturbances with their sleeping pattern

  3) changes in appetite which causes significant weight changes
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  1) lack of enthusiasm

  2) constant depressed mood

  3)worthlessness
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  1) Delusions

  2) thoughts of death

  3) poor memory
• The cognitive approach to explaining depression

  This approach focuses on people's beliefs rather than their behaviour. Depression results from systematic negative bias in thinking processes.
• Becks Negative triad ( 1976)


  Beck developed a cognitive explanation of depression which has three components: a) cognitive bias; b) negative self- schemas; c) the negative triad
• a) Cognitive bias

  Beck found that depressed people are more likely to focus on the negative aspects of a situation, while ignoring the positives. They are prone to distorting and misinterpreting information- cognitive bias.
• b) Negative schemas

  Beck believes people become depressed because the world is seen through negative schemas. Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures place unreal demands on them, as well as being highly critical. These negative schemas are fuelled by cognitive biases.
• c) The negative triad

  Beck claimed that cognitive biases and negative self- schemas maintain the negative triad. The triad consists of three elements, about the self, the world and the future.

  
• Ellis' ABC model


  An explanation that sees depression occurring through an activating agent, a belief and a consequence.

  
• a) Activating event

  
  

  b) Beliefs

  
  

  c) Consequence


  a) Something that happens in the environment around you.

  
  

  b) You hold a belief about the event or situation

  
  

  c) You have an emotional response to your belief.
• Evaluation of the cognitive approach when explaining depression

  It favours the freewill side of the freewill vs determinism debate and suggests that an individual with psychopathology is in control of their own lives/wellbeing
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

  In treating depression


  -CBT is the main psychological treatment used to help treat depression and sees abnormal behaviour as caused by disordered thought processes

  -CBT assists patients to identify irrational and maladaptive thoughts and alter them into rational ones

  - CBT is an umbrella term for a number of different therapies, such as REBT.
• Rational emotive behavioural therapy ( REBT)

  REBT was developed by Ellis, who thought "people are not disturbed by things but rather by their view of things". Ellis saw irrational thoughts as causing emotional distress and behaviour disorders and so REBT involves making patients irrational and negative thoughts more rational and positive.
• Evaluation of the cognitive approach to treating depression

  Unlike drugs, a patient who undergoes this treatments can be treated for abnormality without experiencing any additional symptoms.
• Phobias

  Anxiety disorders characterised by extreme irrational fears
• Social phobias


  Involve being over anxious in social situations
• Agoraphobia


  The fear of leaving home or a safe place
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  -anxiety response ( efforts are made to avoid feared object)

  - disruption of functioning
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  -persistent, excessive fear

  -fear from exposure to the phobic stimulus