biopsych exam 1

• Amino Acids:

  • gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)
  • Type: Inhibitory
  • Released from: Neurons of the spinal cord, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and many areas of cerebral cortex
  • Functions: Reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system, acts as a brake to excitatory neurotransmitters, closely related to mood and emotions
• Histamine:

  • Type: Excitatory
  • Released from: Hypothalamus, cells of the stomach mucosa, and a type of white blood cell in the blood
  • Functions: Regulates wakefulness, blood pressure, pain, sexual behavior, mediates inflammatory reactions, and increases acidity in the stomach
• Glutamate (Glu):

  • Type: Excitatory
  • Released from: Sensory neurons and cerebral cortex
  • Functions: Regulates central nervous system excitability, learning process, and memory
• Serotonin (5-HT):

  • Type: Inhibitory
  • Released from: Neurons of the brainstem, gastrointestinal tract, and thrombocytes
  • Functions: Regulates body temperature, perception of pain, emotions, and sleep cycle
• Dopamine:

  • Type: Both excitatory and inhibitory
  • Released from: Substantia Nigra
  • Functions: Inhibits unnecessary movement, inhibits release of prolactin, stimulates secretion of growth hormone
• Acetylcholine (Ach):

  • Type: Excitatory in all cases (except in the heart acts as inhibitory neurotransmitter)
  • Released from: Motor neurons, basal ganglia, postganglionic neurons of PNS, preganglionic neurons of autonomic nervous system, and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system that innervates sweat glands
  • Functions: Very important for muscle function and movement, regulates sleep cycles
• Norepinephrine (NE):

  • Type: Excitatory
  • Released from: Brainstem, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands
  • Functions: Increases the level of alertness and wakefulness, stimulates various other processes in the body
• Epinephrine (Epi) also known as Adrenaline (Ad):

  • Type: Excitatory
  • Released from: Cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland
  • Functions: Triggers the fight or flight response, increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose production
• Melatonin:

  • Type: Hormone
  • Released from: The pineal gland in the brain
  • Functions: Regulates the circadian rhythm, energy metabolism, the immune system, and is involved in the aging process
• Endorphins:

  • Type: Hormone
  • Released from: Pituitary gland
  • Functions: Inhibits response to pain, muscle cramps, and is involved in relieving stress
• Oxytocin:

  • Type: Hormone
  • Released from: Hypothalamus makes oxytocin, posterior pituitary gland stores and releases it in the bloodstream
  • Functions: Involved in social bonding, sexual arousal, romantic attachment, childbirth, parent-infant bonding, important for contractions during childbirth and lactation
• Vasopressin:

  • Type: Hormone (antidiuretic hormone)
  • Released from: Regulates water balance in the body, synthesized in hypothalamus, released from posterior pituitary gland
• Nitric Oxide:

  • Type: Gas
  • Released from: A variety of cells in the brain
  • Functions: Involved in brain blood flow (vasodilatation) and neurotransmission