General Biology 2

• Genetic Engineering is the process by which pieces of DNA are transferred from one organism to another.
• Plasmid is a double-stranded, circular piece of DNA in a bacterium
• Vector acts as a carrying device needed to transfer a gene into a host cell
• Recombinant DNA is the combination of new DNA from two organisms
• An organism which has foreign DNA integrated into its genetic material is called GMO (Genetically Modified Organism)
• Gene Therapy is the transfer of a normal gene into a patient's body to prevent or treat a disease
• Luxturna a type of gene therapy approved by FDA in 2017 used to treat retinal disorder (Leber Congenital Amaurosis)
• CAR-T Cell Therapy a type of gene therapy used to treat leukemia and lymphoma
• Strimvelis a type gene therapy approved in Europe used to treat Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency
• Zolgonesma is a type of gene therapy approved by FDA in 2019 used to treat Spinal Muscular Atrophy
• Advantages of Genetic Engineering are:

  1. Disease Treatment
  2. Increased in yield & crop production
  3. Drug production
  4. Bioremediation
• Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering are:

  1. Ethical concerns
  2. Environmental risks
  3. Health risks
  4. Economic issues
  5. Unintended consequences
  6. Bioterrorism
• Bioremediation is the intentional release of bacteria or microorganism to detoxify pollutants
• Bioterrorism is the intentional release of bacteria or microorganism to harm people
• Fossils are traces, remains, or imprints of a once-living thing
• Sedimentary rocks has layers; oldest layers are found at the bottom and youngest layers are found at the top
• Relative Dating are the estimation of the age of a fossil by position in the rock's layers
• Absolute Dating is the precise estimation of the age of a fossil used by scientists
• Geologic Time Scale is the type of calendar used by the scientists to divide the Earth's long history
• Accurate division of units in the Geologic Time Scale:

  Eon-Era-Period-Epoch
• Earth is around 4.6 Billion years old
• Eon is the largest unit division of time in the geologic time scale
• There are 2 Major Eons

  1. Precambrian Eon
  2. Phanazeroic Eon
• Precambrian Eon

  • Earth's atmosphere has no oxygen
  • first organism to exist are prokaryotes (no nucleus)
  • cyanobacteria (green algae) appeared which produces food and releases oxygen
• There are 3 Major Era in Precambrian Eon

  1. Hadean Era
  2. Archean Era
  3. Proterozoic Era
• Hadean Era

  • formation of Earth as a ball of fire
  • no life
  • no oxygen in the atmosphere
• Archean Era

  • no life on land
  • presence of bacteria in the sea that releases oxygen
  • stromatolites (a cyanobacteria) responsible for the production of atmospheric oxygen
• Proterozoic Era

  • still, no life on land
  • presence of green algae in the seas
• Phanazeroic Eon is subdivided into 3 Era

  1. Paleozoic Era
  2. Mesozoic Era
  3. Cenozoic Era
• Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is dominated by organisms who are invertebrates. Subdivided into 6 Periods:

  1. Cambrian Period (predominant organisms are echinoderms, mollusks, arthropods, trilobites, & sponges)
  2. Ordovician Period (first plants, ferns, existed)
  3. Silurian Period (corals appeared & fish continue to evolve)
  4. Devonian Period (plant seeds evolved & fish are now lobe-finned)
  5. Carboniferous Period (first amphibians existed)
  6. Permian Period (formation of supercontinent Pangaea)
• Mesozoic Era (middle life) is considered the era of dinosaurs and the age of reptiles. Subdivided into 3 Periods:

  1. Triassic Period (first dinosaurs branched off from reptiles; separation of supercontinent Pangaea to form Laurasia & Gondwanaland)
  2. Jurassic Period (the golden age of dinosaurs; first bird appeared, the archaeopteryx; small mammals evolved & flowering-plants appeared)
  3. Cretaceous Period (the dinosaurs reached their peak size)
• Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the present era and considered to be as the age of mammals. Subdivided into 2 Periods:

  1. Tertiary Period (Earth's climate was warm)
  2. Quaternary Period (Earth's climate was cool)
• Epoch is the smallest unit division in the geologic time scale