mary i

• Mary was born in February 1516 and raised as a pious Catholic.

  she was well educated and could speak French, Latin and Spanish

  Originally she was close with her father but after she sided with her mother this changed
• Mary was eager to establish her right as Queen and protect her security. she needed support from the Privy Council and the public. Marriage and children would also help her make her reign more secure.
• problems with female rulers:

  had a legacy of violence due to the first female leader (not officially Queen ), Matilda

  thought they were incapable as rulers, compared to men
• Mary worked extremely hard and was decisive and determined when it came to government. But she lacks the experience to create complete loyalty around the country
• Mary kept some of Edward's advisors such Sir William Paget and Sir Thomas Cheney due to his success. this meant that there was a high level of continuity in Government.
• Mary's court was made up of devotees rather than experience advisors as she feared the instability of her position
• mary's 5 biggest problems:

  unmarried, then a problematic marriage

  no heir

  pious Catholic

  surrounded herself with devotees

  used many of same solutions to problems as Edward
• Mary aimed to build a broad gov but it was dominated by imperial envoys, and reactionary conservatives
• The privy council grew in size to about 60 members but efficiency also increased. she introduced 12 subcommittees which specific functions e.g. administration of the navy
• Mary is credited for successfully refurbishing the navy that had been laid to waste since Henry VIII. she built 6 new ships and an annual peacetimes appropriation of £14,000 was provided
• Mary kept officers of the law regardless of their religion
• Gardiner returned to favour under Mary and was appointed Lord Chancellor
• cardinal pole returned to England in 1554 as Archbishop of Canterbury. influence in England increased but not internationally as the Pope disliked him
• Simon Renard was the Spanish Ambassador. he quickly won Mary's confidence and became the centre of English affairs.
• Mary encouraged factionalism, particularly prominent between Gardiner and Paget
• many argue that her government was too large to function effectively. didn't allow for proper discussion of decisions. for example, the Spanish marriage was not formally discussed.
• parliament effectively established a corporate seal for business and negotiated reconciliation with Rome.
• Mary's five parliaments passed 104 acts in the 5 sessions, not that good of a record, perhaps due to a lack of leadership in the House of Lords. Parliaments saw brief sessions, lack of record keeping, and absenteeism
• reintroduction of First Fruits and Tenths to the church was passed in 1555, but it was a close vote. 193: 126
• positive relations between Mary and government are suggested to be due to a shared fear of social revolution more than anything else
• terms of Mary and Phillip's marriage:

  if no heirs, Phillip nor his sons would have a claim to the throne

  Phillip couldn't take Mary out of the country

  Phillip couldn't promote foreigners to office (not always followed)

  an heir would not inherit Spain, only England and the Low countries
• the Spanish marriage was mutually beneficial. It was a Catholic alliance for Mary. And for the Hapsburgs as an alliance with England would help oppose France
• Mary's foreign policy aims:

  protect England from an invasion

  improve trade relations

  promote Catholicism
• Mary lost Calais in 1558. this was a huge blow because having territory in France meant they didn't have to pay export tax.
• in 1557, Mary declares war on France. Spain were already at war with them.

  7000 soliders sent to aid the 70,000 Spanish. at the Battle of St Quentin, France were defeated.

  Knowing full defeat was imminent the French wanted to target Calais. they launched a surprise attack and recaptured it.
• mary's dilemma about returning to Catholicism

  The Break from Rome was passed through Parliament meaning it was a statute law. To repeal it Mary would have to admit it was real.

  But this acknowledges statute over divine law, the opposite to fundamental catholic beliefs
• December 1553, Mary gives up title Supreme Head of the Church
• 1554 Royal Injunctions removed married clergy, suppressed heresy, restored Holy Days and ceremonies and processions
• November 1554, Second Act of Repeal undid all anti-papal legislation

  since 1529
• Feb 1555, John Rogers was the first protestant burned under heresy laws, he was a biblical translator
• Foxe's book of martyrs

  list of all protestant martyrs that were killed by Catholics. became an anti-catholic sentiment.

  was a reliable source due to eye-witness accounts
• war of words

  competition between Catholics and Protestants to print the most propaganda about their religion.

  It became treason to slander Mary or Catholicism- despite this the Protestants one as they had more influence and access to printers
• bishops were instructed to conduct visitations on potential heretics. they were imprisoned and tried, if they asked for forgiveness they were spared. but if they stuck to protestantism they were killed
• Pole's top-down strategy to restore Catholicism

  1. got support from leaders and bishops.
  2. 12 decrees controlled Priests, nepotism and other abuses were stopped
  3. Pole commissioned new publications like a new Book of Homilies to help the clergy
  4. believed in and promoted clerical education