AFAM Unit 4

• The négritude and negrismo movements in the early to mid-20th century affirmed the influence of African heritage and cultural aesthetics on Afro-descendants throughout the African diaspora
• Négritude was a political, cultural, and literary movement of the 1930s through 1950s that started with French-speaking Caribbean and African writers protesting colonialism and the assimilation of Black people into European culture
• Negrismo emerged in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean at the same time as the négritude movement, celebrating African contributions to Latin American music, folklore, literature, and art
• Proponents of négritude and negrismo critiqued colonialism, rejecting the notion that European colonialism civilized colonized subjects and arguing that racial ideologies underpinned colonial exploitation and violent intervention
• The civil rights movement emerged from the need to eradicate segregation and ensure federal protection of the rights guaranteed by the Reconstruction Amendments and the Civil Rights Act of 1875
• In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional in the Brown v. Board of Education decision
• The G.I. Bill of 1944 provided funds for college tuition, low-cost home mortgages, and low-interest business startup loans, but was often disproportionately disbursed to White veterans due to discriminatory practices
• Housing discrimination through redlining and restrictions on home ownership limited African Americans' ability to pass on wealth to their descendants
• The major civil rights organizations, like the NAACP, National Urban League, CORE, SCLC, and SNCC, mobilized the civil rights movement through nonviolent, direct, and racially inclusive protest strategies
• African American and White civil rights activists partnered as Freedom Riders to protest segregation in the U.S. South, and the March on Washington in 1963 was a massive peaceful protest that drew over 250,000 participants
• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended segregation and prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, and religion, while the Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory barriers in voting
• Black women leaders like Ella Baker and Fannie Lou Hamer furthered the goals of major civil rights organizations, stressing the importance of addressing both racial and gender discrimination
• Bayard Rustin, a significant advisor to Martin Luther King Jr., faced discrimination for being openly gay but was a key leader in the civil rights movement
• Leaders like Ella Baker and Fannie Lou Hamer emphasized addressing both racial and gender discrimination during the Black Freedom movement
• Ella Baker, known as the “mother of the civil rights movement,” focused on grassroots organizing and encouraged young people to contribute to social justice efforts fighting racism and sexism
• In her speech at SNCC’s founding in 1960, Ella Baker emphasized group-centered leadership over leader-centered groups in the civil rights movement
• Dorothy Height led the National Council of Negro Women for 40 years and worked on civil rights projects with the Big Six leaders, including the March on Washington
• Black artists, performers, poets, and musicians advocated for racial equality during the Black Freedom movement, bringing international attention to the cause
• Performers like Josephine Baker critiqued the double standards of American democracy during the Black Freedom movement
• Poets like Nicolás Guillén examined connections between anti-Black racism in the US and Latin America, denouncing segregation
• Musicians like jazz bassist Charles Mingus composed protest songs drawing global attention to white supremacist responses to racial integration in the US
• Faith and music were crucial for inspiring African Americans during the civil rights movement, with freedom songs unifying and renewing activists’ spirits
• Martin Luther King Jr. described “We Shall Overcome” as an anthem of the civil rights movement
• Diasporic solidarity between African Americans and Africans in the 20th century brought international attention to Africa’s decolonization
• Africans and African Americans endured similar struggles against anti-Black racism and oppression, fostering diasporic solidarity
• The Black Power movement transitioned from civil rights, promoting self-determination and cultural pride
• The Black Panther Party pursued political, economic, and social reforms, advocating for freedom from oppression and access to basic needs
• The Black Is Beautiful and Black Arts movements celebrated Black beauty, heritage, and culture, influencing Black studies and ethnic studies
• Black women in civil rights organizations were frustrated by limited leadership roles and opportunities, especially Black lesbians who felt excluded
• Writers like Gwendolyn Brooks and Mari Evans explore the lived experience of Black women and men, showing how race, gender, and social class can affect how they are perceived, their roles, and their economic opportunities
• In literature like Maud Martha, Gwendolyn Brooks depicts how African Americans negotiate the multiple dimensions of their identity and social class as they navigate spaces within and beyond their communities
• Mari Evans alludes to landmark moments in Black history to convey the distinctive perspective of being a Black woman
• Despite the growth of the Black middle class, substantial disparities in wealth along racial lines remain, with the median wealth for Black families in 2016 at $17,150 compared to $171,000 for Whites
• Desegregation in the 1950s and 1960s expanded educational opportunities and gradually increased the number of Black college graduates, with 23% of African American adults having earned a bachelor’s degree or higher by 2019
• Urbanization increased opportunities for employment and the growth of Black businesses, with Black entrepreneurs contributing significantly to American society and the economy through establishments like restaurants, banks, and publishing houses
• In the late 20th century, the growth of Black voting power and political representation occurred alongside the expansion of the Black middle class, leading to many African Americans achieving influential positions in politics
• Between 1970 and 2006, the number of Black elected officials in the U.S. grew from about 1,500 to 9,000–a sixfold increase, with significant contributions from the Black Freedom movement
• Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman in Congress in 1968 and helped found the Congressional Black Caucus in 1971, while Colin Powell became the first Black secretary of state in 2001, succeeded by Condoleezza Rice, the first Black woman in that position
• The early 21st century saw historic precedents in Black executive branch political leadership, with the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008 and Kamala Harris as vice president in 2020, the first African Americans to hold these positions in U.S. history
• Since 2000, the number of Black college degree holders has more than doubled, and the Black-identifying population in the U.S. grew by 30% to approximately 47 million people by 2019, nearly 14% of the U.S. population