Bio 2 (Pre-final)

• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with the naming and identification of organisms.
• John Ray is credited and revised the concept of describing and naming organisms.
• Carolus Linneus classified organisms into two main groups: kingdoms Plantae and Animalia.
• Robert Whittaker introduced five kingdoms: Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Animalia, and Monera. As the years passed by, Whittaker's idea was employed in the field. However, recent studies show that there are three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
• Monera: This is the only kingdom composed of prokaryotic organisms that lack membrane-bound organelle, have a cell wall, and multicellular form.
• Monera includes cyanobacteria and eubacteria. It is now separated into two Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
• Protista: This is the ancient eukaryotic kingdom with various types of eukaryotic organisms and nutritional heterotrophic, autotrophic, and both.
• Plantae: These are immobile, multicellular cells that produce their food by the process of photosynthesis and have a cell wall. Plantae are a source of oxygen, food, spices, and many more.
• Animalia: These are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that are capable of moving. They do not have a cell wall. Animals provide clothing, food, labor, and many more.
• Phylum: Example is chordate under animal kingdom
• Class: Mammalia is where humans belong
• Order: Example of the order is primates
• Family: Hominidae includes humans and apes
• Genus: for humans is Homo, which is also applicable for other organisms
• Species: is the most specific classification, and humans' species is called Sapiens
• Phylogeny is the goal of systematics.
• Phylogenetic Tree: Phylogeny is the goal of systematics. There must be data that will come from the characteristics used in classification. These are the methods of classification: traditional, phenetic, and cladistics
• The characteristics used in classification. These are the methods of classification: traditional, phenetics, and cladistics 
• The traditional classification of species based on Linnaeus is that reptiles have a scale, animals have feathers, and mammals have hair. Fossils are not included in these classifications. For example, a derived character that organisms have an amniotic egg. Linnaeus placed each of it and the group in Phylum Chordata. 
• Cladistics is systematics created by Willi Hennig who formulated a more objective method of classifying organisms.
• Cladistics based organisms on the presence of shared derived characters and not on the overall similarity of potential groups. Like from the example of those with amniotic egg, it can be used to unite groups but not be present in a group that was not in the lineage. Birds and mammals with hair and feathers are not a factor into a cladistics hypothesis because they are unique characteristics to one taxon only. 
• Cladistics lies in the capacity to generate multiple hypotheses that can be evaluated with additional data.
• Cladogram imposed the principle of parsimony stating that the shortest number of steps is most likely correct. For example, the mammal clade is united by fur, the lizard, pigeon, and mouse-chimp clade are united by claws or nails.
• Phenetics is the process wherein taxa are clustered based on the number of similarities of organisms. Traits are measured using numerical data. These data are processed using an algorithm that generates a similarity matrix.
• Phenetics can be represented by a phenogram and principle coordinate plot. 
• Fungi: This is a eukaryotic, heterotrophic, and multicellular group enclosed in the cell wall.
• . Fungi get their food through decomposed dead organisms.
• Some fungi cause diseases while others are useful for industrial purposes.
• Classification: Life, Domain, Kingdom, Phylum-Class, Order, Family,Genus, Species
• What are the five kingdoms?


  Plantae, Animalia, Protista, Fungi, and Monera
• Nomenclature : naming of species is set based on a guideline by the International code of botanical and International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
• 1. All Taxa must belong or have higher taxonomic group.
  2. The first name should be a priority.
  3. All taxa must have an author. If you noticed the scientific name, Homo Sapiens L, the L stands for Linnaeus who describes and named organism.
  4. The first letter of the genus must be capitalized then the species name must be in small letters. Scientific names are always italicized.
• Make their own food from inorganic materials through photosynthesis.

  Autotrophic Plants
• Commonly parasitic and lack chlorophyll. They cannot synthesize organic carbon instead they draw all the nutrients from the host plants.


  Heterotrophic Plants
• Plants require.....

  20 elements, water and light to support life
• Nutrients required in larger amounts

  Macronutrients
• Macronutrients are?

  Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, potassium, calcium, nitrogen, sulfur, and magnesium
• Form macromolecules and the other compounds. 50 percent of it is present to the total dry weight of the cell.

  Carbon
• Forming nucleic acids and protein and synthesizes vitamins.

  Nitrogen
• Essentials in organic compounds and the formation of water.

  Oxygen and Hydrogen