CC2 2nd quiz

• Parathyroid gland:

  • 4 tiny glands attached to the thyroid
  • Releases PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)
  • Actions directed to bone, kidney, and intestines
  • Controls calcium and phosphate metabolism with the help of calcitonin
  • Prevents hypocalcemia
  • Smallest endocrine gland in the body
• PTH (Parathyroid Hormone) measurement:

  • Intact PTH: 10-65 pg/mL
  • PTH N-terminal: 8-24 pg/mL
  • PTH C-terminal: 50-330 pg/mL
• Thyroid gland:

  • Follicular cells secrete T3 and T4
  • Parafollicular cells (C-cells) secrete calcitonin
  • Iodine is crucial for the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones
• Myxedema:

  • Hypothyroidism during adult years
• Hashimoto's Disease:

  • Acquired hypothyroidism in later childhood due to autoantibodies to thyroid tissue components
  • Laboratory results: High TSH, positive anti-TPO (thyroid peroxidase)
• Grave's Disease:

  • Hyperthyroidism with exophthalmos (eye protrusion)
  • Hypersecretion of thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIS)
  • Diffuse toxic goiter
• Serum Free Triiodothyronine:

  • Measures the amount of free T3 in blood
  • Used to evaluate and manage thyroid disorders
  • Related tests: TSH and FT4
• Serum Total T4 Competitive Immunoassay:

  • Measures total thyroxine/T4 in blood
  • Adults: 60-181 ng/dL
  • Related tests: Calcium, Phosphorus, and Creatinine
• TSH Immunoassay:

  • Measures the amount of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in blood
  • Related tests: T3 and T4
  • Adults: 0.5-4.7 uunits/L
• Serum FSH Measurement:

  • Measures follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in blood
  • Used to assess and manage disorders of the endocrine glands, including suspected infertility
  • Normal values for females in different phases
• ADH Measurement:

  • Measures the amount of antidiuretic hormone in blood
• Calcitonin:

  • Regulates calcium levels
• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) measurement:

  • Overnight fasting
  • Intact PTH: 10-65 pg/mL
  • PTH N-terminal: 8-24 pg/mL
  • PTH C-terminal: 50-330 pg/mL
• Calcitonin helps in regulating calcium levels
• T3 and T4 hormones are bound to proteins like albumin, pre-albumin, and globulin in the blood
• Cretinism is associated with hyposecretion of thyroid hormones during fetal life or infancy
• Goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland, a symptom of many thyroid disorders
• Insulin Stress Test, also known as Insulin Tolerance Test, is done when hypopituitarism is suspected
• TRH Test assesses the adequacy of the Anterior Pituitary Reserve or evaluates hypothalamic disease
• Hyperthyroidism shows a low TSH response (<2mU/L), while hypothyroidism shows an exaggerated TSH response (>25 mU/L)
• GnRH Test assesses hypogonadism and can be done together with other anterior pituitary function tests
• ACTH Stimulation Test distinguishes between adrenal and pituitary causes of hormone production issues
• LH Ovulation Dipstrip Urine Test is used to test for ovulation
• FSH measures ovarian reserve and function in females
• Estradiol rises as the follicle matures, useful for measuring follicular activity
• High prolactin levels indicate hyperprolactinemia
• Water deprivation test is used to diagnose diabetes insipidus
• Laboratory Measurement of Some Hormones Secreted by the Pituitary Gland:

  • Growth Hormone Immunoassay requires multiple measurements over a period
  • Insulin tolerance test is used to provoke GH release
  • Prolactin Immunoassay uses a sandwich technique with two or more antibodies
• Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete hormones directly into the blood:

  • Glucagon: involved in glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
  • Insulin: plays a role in glycogenesis, glycolysis, and lipogenesis
  • Somatostatin: prevents pancreatic juices and pancreatic hormones
• Diseases associated with hormones of the pancreas include:

  • Diabetes Mellitus: deficiency of insulin or defects in insulin receptors
  • Hyperinsulinism: hypersecretion of insulin, possibly due to a tumor like insulinoma
  • Glucagonoma: hypersecretion of glucagon
  • Somatostaninoma: hypersecretion of somatostatin
• The gonads are the main source of sex hormones:

  • Testes produce androgens like testosterone and sperm, influencing sexual development in males
  • Ovaries produce eggs and secrete estrogen, progesterone, and relaxin, affecting sexual development in females
• Diseases associated with hormones secreted by the gonads include:

  • Female Pseudohermaphroditism
  • Precocious Puberty
  • Kallmann Syndrome
  • Testicular Feminization Syndrome
• Diseases associated with hormones of the adrenal glands:

  • Hyperaldosteronism: hypersecretion of aldosterone
  • Hypoaldosteronism: deficient aldosterone production
  • Cushing's Disease: hyposecretion of cortisol
  • Addison's Disease: primary adrenal insufficiency
• • Female Pseudohermaphroditism: Genetically female but whose phenotypic characteristic are, to varying degree, male. Exposure to androgens before the 12th week of gestation.
• Precocious Puberty

  • Development of secondary sexual characteristic in girls <8 years old ans boys <9 years old
  • Premature hair and breast development
• Kallman Syndrome

  • Most common form of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism due to deficiency of GnRH
  • Both seen in male and female
• Testicular Feminization Syndrome

  • Androgen insensitivity syndrome
  • Defects in androgen action
  • Males with female habitus and develop breast tissue
  • blind vagina with rudimentary testes
• Epinephrine:

  • Accounts for 70% of fight and flight responses
  • Mobilizes energy stores and prepares the body for muscular activity and stressful conditions
• Norepinephrine:

  • Accounts for 30% of fight and flight responses
  • Abundant medullary neurotransmitter in both CNS and SNS
• Dopamine:

  • Mobilizes energy stores and prepares the body for muscular activity and stressful conditions
  • Increases heart rate