Chapter 3 - Empires and Rivalries

• What were policymakers and businessmen starting to question in the 19th century?

  British, French, and Russians questioned whether the income generated from imperial trade was worth the cost of maintaining control over their colonies, however, this attitude changed significantly after 1870 as the countries scrambled for Africa and China, creating considerable tension
• What were the aims of Britain, France, Germany, and Russia in terms of their empires?

  Britain - to maintain her empire

  
  

  France and Germany - to increase their empires

  
  

  Russia - to expand her influence in three different areas
• Who was Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914)?


  Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1895 and 1903 - a passionate believer in British imperialism and tariff reform, commanding much influence. He fiercely defended Britain's involvement in the Second Boer war but failed to prevent his Liberal Unionist Party's defeat in the 1906 general election
• Why did the Great Powers measure their status by the size of their empires?

  Imperialism gave great advantages by means of trading wealth, and it gave the mother country political influence overseas and strategically important military bases
• What was special about Britain's empire?

  They had the largest empire, and their status as an imperial power had been unchallenged for decades, but by the 19th century, other powers envied Britain's empire prestige
• How did European control over Africa change between 1880 and 1900?

  In 1880, Europe controlled 10% of Africa, but by 1900, they controlled 90% of it
• How was the rush to secure African possessions triggered by the 1870s depression?

  1870s depression caused European businesses to seek new or cheaper raw materials from overseas
• How was the rush to secure African possessions triggered by the Anglo-French rivalry over Egypt and the Ottoman decline?

  The Ottoman Empire was now in decline, and it contained North African regions on the Mediterranean coast. French and British rivalry over influence in Egypt erupted, coming to a crisis point in 1882 when British forces invaded Egypt to crush unrest there. Egypt contained the Suez Canal, which was hugely important for world trade
• How was the rush to secure African possessions triggered by Belgian aims?

  King Leopold of Belgium initiated a new tactic of staking claims to overseas territory in the Congo, and after making commercial treaties with the tribal chiefs, the Belgians then claimed to have established an influence over the region. This prompted France, Britain, Portugal and Germany to dispute Belgium's claims
• What was arranged in 1884 to settle the matter?

  The Berlin Conference
• What was the current state of colonisation in Africa?

  A small proportion had been colonised in 1878, but in the following 6 years, there were disputes over East and West Africa and the Congo
• When was the Berlin Conference?

  November 1884 - February 1885
• Who met at the Berlin Conference?

  Representatives of Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, AH, and Italy
• What issues were raised at the Berlin Conference?

  The division of territories already disputed and the process by which a country could stake its claim over a country in the future
• What process of claiming over a country was resolved upon at the Berlin Conference?

  The principle of "effective occupation" - countries had to already have an established physical presence in the prospective colony before they could claim it
• Who was not at the Berlin Conference?

  There were no Africans at the conference, and only two of the delegates had actually been in Africa
• What did Britain sacrifice by agreeing to the conference?

  Her dominance over the continent as Africa became "up for grabs". Much of Britain's African Empire had been informal - it consisted of trade routes and trading posts rather than official protectorates
• What were the results of the Berlin Conference?

  The scramble for territory in Africa did not end - European control over it tightened. The powers hurried to make good on their claims after the accepted rules of colonisation had been agreed. Helped to prevent a European war breaking out over colonies.
• How did Britain's empire grow through African gains?

  Its informal empire was formalised and extended - it now included Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, British East Africa, Rhodesia and much of South Africa as colonial possessions
• How did France's empire grow through African gains?

  Secured a large amount of territory around the Sahara Desert including important trading posts in Morocco, the Ivory Coast, and the French Congo
• How did Germany's empire grow through African gains?

  Not yet in the thralls of Weltpolitik, they secured the smaller total area of the Cameroons, German South West Africa, Togoland, and German East Africa
• How did Italy's empire grow through African gains?

  It gained Italian Somaliland and Eritrea, but was humiliated by its failed attempt to conquer Abyssinia in 1895-6 when Italian forces were defeated at the Battle of Adwa. This is the only 19th century example of an African state defeating a European colonising force
• Why did the African Empires create more potential for disputes?


  There were new borders for the Great Powers, which always comes with new potential for disputes over them. Perceived expansion near to another country's colony often elicited huge concern and outraged condemnation by imperial rivals. Businessmen often raised concerns about competition and disruption to trading routes while politicians often stressed the potential loss of prestige by allowing such action to go unchallenged
• Why was there a dispute over Mozambique in 1889?


  Portugal had a sphere of influence there which was challenged by the British - Zanzibar, which was a port further up the African coast, was a British protectorate, and the British wanted greater influence in Mozambique. Lord Salisbury wrote to Queen Victoria stating that if Portugal interfered with British interests in the region, then a naval force would be gathered at Zanzibar to strike the Portuguese. The dispute ended peacefully, but threats were issued
• When was the Fashoda Incident?

  1898
• What happened in the Fashoda Incident?

  Britain and France both wanted to consolidate their African colonies - Britain wanted to secure its line of territory from South Africa to Egypt through a railway line planned by Cecil Rhodes to facilitate trade and stamp British influence on the area, whereas France aimed to expand its influence eastwards from its colonies in West and Central Africa. The two policies clashed in 1898 in Sudan, with both sides sending troops to protect their claims, meeting in the town of Fashoda on the River Nile, but they did not engage in combat. The French realised that Britain's superior navy would ensure a British victory, and so both sides backed down. It marked the last major colonial clash between Britain and France
• What happened in March 1899?

  Britain and France agreed on the boundaries of each other's spheres of influence in the Mozambique region
• What was Weltpolitik?

  Described Germany's desire to become an international power

  
  

  "Nothing must henceforth be settled in the world without the intervention of Germany and the German Kaiser" - Kaiser Wilhelm II 1896

  
  

  "We don't want to put anyone else in the shade, but we too demand a place in the sun" - Von Bulow, German FM 1897
• When was the Second Boer War?

  1899-1902
• Why was there tension between the British colonies of Cape Colony and Natal and the neighbouring Boer republics?

  The tension had been increasing for decades - the Boer leaders resented the encroaching British influence in the region and were determined to resist Britain's attempts to unify the South African region as one colony. The independent republics in South Africa were a stumbling block to British imperial ambitions
• Who were the Boers?

  The descendants of the Dutch who had settled in South Africa as farmers in the eighteenth century
• What happened after the First Boer War in 1881?

  Britain was forced to recognise the independence of the Boers, and the Boers continued to refuse any foreign political influence in their states.
• Why was Britain frustrated at the discovery of gold in Transvaal?

  Gold could transform the economy of the republic and make it more likely to resist future colonisation
• Who was Cecil Rhodes and what were his aims?

  A British businessman who had become PM of Cape Colony in 1890. He was determined to help the British realise their aim of extending control over all of South Africa
• What did the government of the President of the Transvaal do to further strain British relations with the Boers?

  Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal, and his government restricted the voting rights of uitlanders, many of whom were British
• Who were the uitlanders?

  Foreigners who had travelled to the Transvaal region to take advantage of the gold discovery
• What happened in 1895?


  A uitlander uprising known as the Jameson Raid planned by Rhodes and Chamberlain. It only succeeded in convincing the Boers that their independence was seriously under threat
• Why did the British resume conflict with the Boers in 1899?


  The Transvaal was refusing to improve conditions for uitlanders, and Britain expected its superior military resources to secure a quick and easy victory
• Why did British confidence prove unfounded?

  The Boers resisted British attacks with their guerrilla tactics
• What were the Boers' guerrilla tactics?

  Fighting involving "undercover" methods of attacking a stronger enemy - guerrillas often set traps and used ambush tactics rather than engaging their opponents using traditional methods to give them a greater chance of victory