anaphy lec

• Illustration of the olfactory system: odor molecules interact with olfactory receptors

  
• Diagram of the tongue showing the location of taste papillae

  
• Special senses like smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium are anatomically distinct and concentrated in specific locations in the head
• Neural pathways for special senses are more complex than those for general senses
• Physiological processes of special senses involve detecting environmental stimuli and converting them into signals for the brain to interpret
• Olfactory receptors react to odorant molecules by developing a generator potential that triggers nerve impulses through olfactory transduction
• Women often have a keener sense of smell than men, especially at the time of ovulation
• Smoking impairs the sense of smell in the short term and may cause long-term damage to olfactory receptors
• With aging, the sense of smell deteriorates, with hyposmia affecting half of those over age 65 and 75% of those over age 80
• Hyposmia can be caused by neurological changes, certain drugs, and the damaging effects of smoking
• Taste buds, where receptors for taste sensation are located, are found on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and epiglottis
• There are three kinds of epithelial cells in taste buds: supporting cells, gustatory receptor cells, and basal cells
• Papillae on the tongue increase surface area and provide a rough texture, with three types housing taste buds: vallate, fungiform, and foliate
• Chemicals that stimulate gustatory receptor cells are known as tastants, which trigger taste transduction and the release of neurotransmitters
• Different tastes arise from activation of different groups of taste neurons, and individual gustatory receptor cells respond more strongly to some tastants than others
• There is a strong link between taste projections to the hypothalamus and limbic system
• The retina is the light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye, responsible for converting light into electrical signals sent to the brain

  
• The retina is made up of several layers, including the pigmented layer, photoreceptor layer with rods and cones, outer synaptic layer, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells
• Rods in the retina allow vision in low-light conditions, while cones are responsible for color vision and vision in bright light
• The retina processes visual data extensively before sending nerve impulses into axons that form the optic nerve
• The lens behind the iris and pupil focuses images on the retina for clear vision, dividing the interior of the eyeball into anterior and posterior cavities
• When light passes through the eye, it gets bent at the cornea and lens, focusing it to the fovea centralis for acute vision; the image perceived at the retina is inverted but becomes upright in the brain
• Visual phototransduction involves absorption of light by photopigments in the outer segment of photoreceptors, initiating events leading to the production of a receptor potential
• Color vision results from different colors of light selectively activating different cone photopigments, each containing opsin and retinal
• The seal of Saint Louis University in the Philippines features a shield with a cross and a fleur-de-lis, flanked by two swords symbolizing the university's commitment to academic excellence and its mission to educate students for leadership and service

  
• An image likely about brainstorming, showing a hexagon with a light bulb in the center with a question mark, two heads with gears, and a purple background

  
• An illustration of the olfactory system depicting how odor molecules interact with the olfactory receptors

  
• A diagram of the tongue showing the location of the taste papillae

  
• The microscopic structure of the retina, responsible for converting light into electrical signals sent to the brain, composed of layers including the pigmented layer, photoreceptor layer with rods and cones, and the outer synaptic layer

  
• An illustration of the anatomy of the human ear, showing the external ear (auricle, external auditory canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles), and inner ear (vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea)

  
• Phototransduction process:

  • Retinal in a bent shape (cis-retinal) absorbs light, straightens to trans-retinal
  • Isomerization: cis-to-trans conversion, first step in visual transduction
  • Trans-retinal separates from opsin, termed bleaching of photopigment
  • Retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to cis-retinal
  • Resynthesis of a photopigment: cis-retinal binds to opsin, reforming a functional photopigment
• Accommodation in the eye:

  • Ability to change focus for clear image formation on the retina despite viewing distance changes
  • In near focus, ciliary muscle contracts, lens becomes rounder and more convex for increased power to bend light
  • Viewing distant objects: ciliary muscles at rest, zonules stretched, lens flat
  • Viewing near objects: ciliary muscles contract, zonules relax, lens round/convex
• Retinal detachment:

  • Occurs due to trauma, eye disorders, or age-related degeneration
  • Detachment between neural portion of the retina and pigmented epithelium, causing distorted vision and blindness
  • Reattachment through laser surgery or cryosurgery needed quickly to avoid permanent damage
• Presbyopia:

  • Age-related loss of lens elasticity affecting near vision
  • Near point of vision increases with age, leading to the need for reading glasses or bifocals
• The seal of Saint Louis University in the Philippines symbolizes the university's Catholic identity, commitment to academic excellence, and pursuit of truth

  
• The retina is made up of layers including the pigmented layer, photoreceptor layer with rods and cones, outer synaptic layer, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells
• The cochlea, a spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear, is responsible for hearing and balance
• The anatomy of the human ear consists of the external ear (auricle and external auditory canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles, eustachian tube), and inner ear (vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea)

  
• The vestibular system of the ear helps maintain postural equilibrium, balance, and spatial orientation, integrating sensory information with the brain for coordinated movements
• Motion sickness results from a conflict among senses regarding motion, with symptoms like nausea, dizziness, and malaise, alleviated by looking at the horizon and medications like scopolamine