topic 8 egypt+india

• Between 1890 and 1914, Britain experienced the 'high noon' of empire, with late Victorians and Edwardians having absolute faith in the permanence of the Empire
• Changes occurred in the administration of countries like India and Egypt, with reforms introduced for the benefit of indigenous peoples under the construct of 'native policy'
• Anxieties existed just below the surface as British affairs became more intertwined with those of other European powers, leading to the abandonment of 'splendid isolation' and potential impending trouble
• Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was Consul-General of Egypt from 1883 to 1907, overseeing significant changes and improvements in Egypt's administration and infrastructure
• Evelyn Baring's projects included improving conditions for Egyptian laborers, sanitation, health services, and the construction of the Aswan Dam, which significantly impacted Egypt's irrigation and economy
• Evelyn Baring's military changes in Egypt involved placing 6000 British troops to safeguard British interests and maintain stability
• Evelyn Baring's cautious approach to education aimed to prevent nationalist growth, offering limited schooling to Egyptians, with the establishment of a new university in 1909 for modern education
• Eldon Gorst, Consul-General of Egypt from 1907 to 1911, aimed to weaken the Egyptian nationalist party by involving more Egyptians in government and imposing tighter censorship
• Herbert Kitchener, Consul-General of Egypt from 1911 to 1914, focused on curbing nationalist sentiment, increasing British dominance, and implementing a new legislative assembly that favored rich landowners
• British Somaliland:

  • Key individuals: N/A
  • Facts: N/A
• Zanzibar:

  • Key individuals: N/A
  • Facts: N/A
• West Africa:

  • Key individuals: N/A
  • Facts: N/A
• Paxman's main argument on British involvement in Sudan:

  • Main argument: The main driving force behind British involvement in Sudan
  • Convincing evidence: N/A
  • Less convincing evidence: N/A
• British rule in Sudan 1890-1914:

  • Changes: N/A
  • Continuity: N/A
  • Key events: N/A
  • Indigenous people's challenges to British rule and British reactions: N/A
  • Factors shaping British intervention in Sudan: N/A
• Curzon's significant actions in India:

  • Division of Bengal into East (Muslim majority) and West for administrative efficiency
  • Seen as a direct attack on ancient regional boundaries, leading to protests and boycotts
  • Consequences: Raised profile of INC and nationalism, formation of All Indian Muslim League, Bengal reunified in 1911
• British rule in India faced challenges:

  • Indigenous peoples intimidated, bullied, and coerced into accepting British rule
  • British believed in their civilizing influence, justifying empire as an educational or civilizing enterprise
• Howe describes Britain's attitude towards indigenous peoples:

  • Belief in British superiority based on cultural, civilizational, and racial notions
  • Empire justified as a civilizing mission, reflecting "scientific racism" beliefs around 1900
• Challenges to British rule in India:

  • Challenge 1: Political opposition grew among educated Indian professionals in the 1890s, expressed through nationalist newspapers
  • Challenge 2: Young India organization carried out assassinations of British officials
  • Challenge 3: Swadeshi campaign led by Tilak aimed to undermine British rule through petitions, protests, and boycotts
• Comparison of British rule in India and Egypt:

  • India: Direct rule, denied self-rule, British Viceroy backed by Indian Civil Service
  • Egypt: Indirect rule until 1914, use of Consul-Generals as 'real' rulers, partially-elected parliament with British advisors
• Germany, France, and Russia in the late 19th century:

  • Germany united in 1871 and showed industrial potential with merchant ships on the High Seas
  • France, defeated by Germany in 1871, transformed its armed forces and rapidly recovered to assert its 'rightful place'
  • Russia, less industrially advanced, extended control into central Asia and bordered Afghanistan by 1884
• Russia began constructing a railway network that the British feared could challenge their position in India, with work on the Trans Siberian railway starting in 1891
• France allowed the French in South East Asia to establish a foothold in Indo China in the 1860s, later joined by the Germans seeking commercial concessions
• Britain's relations with France, Russia, and Germany before 1890 were influenced by events like the French alliance with Russia in 1892, Germany's naval expansion, and Russia's threats to the Raj and the Middle East
• Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, developed a bigger navy, made alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy, and supported the Boers in the war against Britain
• New threats to Britain in the late 19th century:

  • Threats from Russia to the Raj and the Middle East
  • France's alliance with Russia in 1892 and the Fashoda Incident
  • Germany's naval expansion and alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy
• European Rivalry in 1890-1914 saw new threats to Britain from Russia, France, and Germany, with Germany posing the biggest threat due to its naval expansion and alliances
• Clash with Russia:

  • 1892: Russian naval presence on the Mediterranean
  • 1892: Creates military agreements with France to counter German alliances
  • 1894: Official alliance between Russia and France
  • 1900: 300,000 Russian soldiers near Afghanistan while Britain was stretched by war in South Africa
  • 1901: Anglo-Japanese agreement angers Russians
  • 1905: Russia suffers humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, shattering its naval power
  • 1907: Anglo-Russian agreement forms the Triple Entente with Britain, France, and Russia
  • Impact on British Empire: Concerns over protection of India and Russia's ambitions in Afghanistan and the Middle East
• Clash with France:

  • 1892: Creates military agreements with Russia to counter German alliances
  • 1894: Official alliance between Russia and France
  • 1898: Fashoda Incident
  • 1904: Entente Cordiale with Britain
  • 1905: Moroccan Crisis - German Kaiser threatens French interests in Morocco
  • 1907: Triple Entente formed, comprising Britain, France, and Russia
  • Impact on British Empire: Uneasy position due to alliances, concerns over security, and preparation for war
• Clash with Germany:

  • 1870: Germany allies with Austria-Hungary
  • 1882: Italy joins the alliance
  • 1888: Kaiser Wilhelm II establishes warm relations with the Ottoman Empire
  • 1888 onwards: Huge sums spent on building the navy
  • 1896: Kaiser supports the Transvaal during the Jameson Raid
  • 1899-1902: Supplies Boers with weapons
  • 1906: Naval race with Britain
  • Impact on British Empire: Direct challenge to British naval supremacy, concerns over German ambitions
• Impact on British Empire from global conflicts:

  • 1914: Outbreak of war due to other nations' quest for empire
  • Russia, Germany, and Italy had hopes of extending their empires in the Balkans
  • Balkan Wars and the assassination of the Austrian throne heir led to direct conflicts
  • German invasion of Belgium in 1914 leads Britain into war
  • Challenges the legitimacy of European empires and hints at the desire for national self-determination
• Joseph Chamberlain:

  • Started as a Liberal, defected to the Conservative Party as Colonial Secretary from 1895-1903
  • Chaired two colonial conferences in 1897 and 1902 proposing imperial defence and customs union, but ideas were rejected
  • Advocated for tariff reform and imperial preference, leading to a split in the Conservative Party and his resignation in 1903
  • Viewed the British race as the greatest governing race
  • Initiated the building of the Ugandan Railway and sanctioned the conquest and annexation of Ashantiland
• Cecil Rhodes:

  • Prime Minister of Cape Colony from 1890
  • Sent settlers to establish Fort Salisbury in Matabeleland, leading to the establishment of Rhodesia
  • Dreamed of a Cape to Cairo railway to ensure British domination of east-central Africa, but it was never completed in his lifetime
  • Resigned after the Jameson Raid in 1896 and died 6 years later
  • His fortune helped promote Empire after his death, e.g., through the Round Table, an imperial pressure group established by Alfred Milner
• Viceroy Curzon:

  • Appointed Viceroy of India in 1899 by Lord Salisbury
  • Created the North West frontier province and dispatched a military expedition into Tibet due to concerns about Russian expansion
  • Established commissions and legislation to improve India's administration and agriculture
  • Founded the Imperial Cadet Corps to give Indian nobles a military role
  • Wary of giving Indians too much responsibility, refused to appoint them to senior posts, and partitioned Bengal in 1905 which backfired
• Evelyn Baring:

  • Consul-General in Egypt from 1883-1907
  • Saw himself as a moral reformer, advocating for Christian values as the basis of Empire
• Evelyn Baring, Consul-General in Egypt between 1883-1907:

  • Saw himself as a moral reformer, believed Christian values should be the base of the Empire
  • Established the 'Granville Doctrine' allowing dismissal of Egyptian ministers who refused British directives
  • Created the veiled protectorate in 1882, where British officials held actual power in Egypt
  • Took actions to stop the slave supply, discourage slave ownership, abolish forced labor, and regulate alcohol sale licenses
• Baring was forced to resign after the Denshawai Incident in 1906
• Alfred Milner, Britain's High Commissioner for Southern Africa from 1897:

  • Ardent imperialist convinced of British superiority over Boers and Afrikaans
  • Founded English-Speaking 'Milner Schools' in Pretoria and Johannesburg
  • Demanded full citizenship rights for Uitlanders and negotiated the Peace of Vereeniging alongside Kitchener
• Milner and a group of young administrators and lawyers, known as Milner's Kindergarten, worked to resettle the Boers and promote economic growth in South Africa
• Milner's decision to use Chinese laborers on 3-year contracts in the mines led to public outrage in Britain