BOTANY

• Botany is the study of plant structure, function, and evolution, with specialties like morphology, physiology, systematics, and genetics
• Systematics in botany involves the identification, classification, and evolutionary relationships of plants, often using reproductive parts like flowers and cones
• Genetics in botany is the study of inheritance and variation, including how characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring
• Various other subdivisions of botany include Phycology (study of algae), Mycology (study of fungi), Bacteriology (study of bacteria), Plant Pathology (study of plant diseases and their control), and Plant Ecology (study of the influences of the environment on plant communities)
• Food plants include grains like rice, wheat, and corn, legumes like soybean and peanut, root crops like cassava and sweet potato, stem crops like Irish potato and sugar cane, fruits like banana and coconut, and leaves like cabbage
• Forages are plants consumed by livestock, with alfalfa being a chief forage plant in the US
• Lumber plants are forest trees used for fuel, furniture, houses, cabinets, boxes, and paper making
• Fiber plants like cotton and jute provide natural fibers, while rayon is a cellulosic fiber made from dissolved cellulose
• Beverage plants include coffee, tea, and cinnamon, each with unique uses and preparation methods
• Medicinal plants like opium poppy, marijuana, quinine, and chrysanthemum have been historically used for various medicinal purposes
• Antibiotics are organic substances produced by living organisms that inhibit the growth or kill other organisms, with penicillin being a well-known example
• Other useful plants include tobacco for cigarette manufacturing and rubber from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis
• The Cell Theory states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and all cells come from pre-existing cells
• Characteristics shared by all living things include organized parts (cells), energy acquisition, chemical reactions, evolution, response to environments, reproduction, homeostasis, and a common history
• The relationship between a cell's shape and its function is crucial, as the diversity of shapes reflects the diversity of functions, with shapes evolving to allow cells to perform their functions effectively
• Attachment is a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver

  
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego represents internalized societal values and standards
• Cell shape and function:

  • Diversity of shapes reflects diversity of functions
  • Shapes can be simple or complex depending on function
  • Cell shape evolved to allow the cell to perform its function effectively
• Factors limiting cell size:

  • Limited by the relationship of the cell’s outer surface area to its volume
  • Most cells range from 10-100µm
• Structurally, cells can be Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes:

  • Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and organelles, include Archaea and Bacteria
  • Eukaryotes have a nucleus and organelles, include plants, animals, fungi, protists
• Parts of a Plant Cell:

  • Cell Wall
  • Plasma Membrane
  • Cytoplasm
  • Mitochondria
  • Dictyosomes
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum
  • Ribosomes
  • Microbodies
  • Plastids
  • Cytoskeleton
  • Vacuoles
  • Nucleus
• Cell Wall:

  • Only in plants, bacteria, and fungi
  • Made of fibers of cellulose
  • Function: protect and support the cell, give rectangular shape to plant cells
• Cell Membrane:

  • Structure: phospholipid bilayer with proteins and carbohydrate chains
  • Function: regulate what enters and leaves the cell, protection and support
• Mitochondria:

  • Structure: double membrane with cristae, inner folds that increase surface area
  • Function: produce ATP, release energy from food for cellular respiration
• Dictyosomes (Golgi bodies):

  • Disk-shaped sacs stacked together
  • Produce secretory vesicles for export or repair
• Endoplasmic Reticulum:

  • Network of flattened sacs, rough (with ribosomes) or smooth (without ribosomes)
  • Function: transport materials, synthesis of macromolecules
• Ribosomes:

  • Small structures for protein synthesis
  • Composed of RNA and protein
• Microbodies:

  • Spherical bodies involved in metabolic reactions
  • Two classes: glyoxysomes and peroxisomes
• Plastids:

  • Have inner and outer membranes and stroma
  • Types include Chromoplasts, Leucoplasts, Proplastids, Amyloplasts
• Cytoskeleton:

  • Includes microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments
  • Function: maintain cell shape and provide internal support
• Vacuole:

  • In plants, 1 large central vacuole
  • Function: storage of water, salts, proteins, carbohydrates, waste products
• Nucleus:

  • Control center of the cell
  • Parts: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin, nucleolus
• Mitosis:

  • Cell cycle phases: G1, S phase, G2, Mitosis
  • Mitosis consists of karyokinesis and cytokinesis
• Mitosis:

  • Division of one cell into two genetically identical daughter cells
  • Ensures each daughter cell gets a full set of chromosomes
• Mitosis Phases:

  • Prophase: nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes condense
  • Metaphase: chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
  • Anaphase: centromeres separate, sister chromatids move apart
  • Telophase: daughter nuclei form, nuclear membrane reappears
• Plant Cell Transport:

  • Diffusion: movement of ions or solute molecules from higher to lower concentration
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Diffusion is the net movement of ions or solute molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient

  
• Diffusion in gases: molecules move from a region of higher concentration to that of a lower concentration until they are evenly spread