AUTOMATION

• Automation in clinical chemistry involves various terms and approaches:

  • Automation is the process where an analytical instrument performs tests with minimal human involvement
  • Batch analysis groups many specimens in the same session, measuring one analyte on all samples before moving to the next
  • Sequential analysis processes specimens one after another, with results emerging in the same order
  • Parallel analysis subjects all specimens to analytical processes simultaneously
  • Single-channel analysis tests each specimen for a single process at a time
  • Multi-channel analysis tests each specimen with multiple processes to obtain a set of results

  
• Basic approaches to automation include:

  • Random-access analysis where analyses are performed sequentially on different tests for each specimen
  • Continuous-flow analysis using peristaltic pumps to deliver liquids through tubing
  • Centrifugal analysis using centrifugation to transfer and contain liquids in separate cuvettes
  • Discrete analysis, the most popular, separates each sample and reagents in separate containers
• Technical considerations in basic automation approaches:

  • Carry-over is the transport of analyte from one specimen reaction to the next, reduced by adequate flushing and proper probe material
  • Throughput is the number of specimens processed by an analyzer in a given time
  • Steps in chemistry automated analysis include specimen identification and transport
• A laboratory automation system consists of a specimen sorter, an automated centrifuge, an uncapper, and a transport system

  
• The specimen sorter categorizes specimens, the automated centrifuge separates components, the uncapper prepares specimens for testing, and the transport system moves specimens to analyzers
• Coring is a process where a hollow tube is forced into the ground to extract a cylindrical sample of soil for analysis
• A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is used to study the surface of a material at the atomic level

  
• The tip of the STM is a sharp metal probe that, when a voltage is applied between the tip and the surface, allows current to flow through and create an image of the material's surface
• Specimen transport methods include courier services, pneumatic tube systems, electric track vehicles, and mobile robots
• Specimen preparation involves clotting time, centrifugation, and transferring samples to analyser cups, which can be manual or automated
• Front-end automation systems can identify, label, centrifuge, prepare aliquots, sort, and deliver samples to analyzers or storage
• Specimen measurement and internal delivery in labs use circular carousels, quadrant trays, or rectangular racks to hold sample cups or tubes for analysis
• Reagent systems in labs can be liquid or dry, with dry reagents like lyophilized powder or dry chemistry slides used in analyzers
• Reagents are preserved by refrigeration, preincubation, or in tablet form, and are measured and dispensed using continuous-flow or discrete analyzers
• Chemical reaction phases in labs involve mixing, separation, incubation, and reaction time, with reactants held in moving containers in discrete analyzers
• The specimen sorter categorizes specimens, the automated centrifuge separates components, the uncapper opens specimens for testing, and the transport system moves specimens to different analyzers
• During coring, a hollow tube is forced into the ground to extract a cylindrical sample of soil, which is then analyzed to determine the soil type and its properties
• A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is used to study the surface of a material at the atomic level by positioning a sharp metal probe close to the material's surface and measuring the current that flows through the tip

  
• In the chemical reaction phase of a discrete analyzer, chemical reactants are held in individual moving containers that can be disposable or reusable
• Wash stations on a chemistry analyzer perform various functions like aspirating reaction waste, dispensing water, rinsing, and drying containers to allow the analyzer to operate continuously without replacing cuvettes
• Unit Operations in the chemical reaction phase include mixing, separation, incubation, and reaction time
• Different techniques of mixing reagents and samples include continuous flow analyzers using coiled tubing, centrifugal analyzers with start-stop rotation, and most automated wet chemistry analyzers using stirring paddles
• In the separation step of the chemical reaction phase, undesirable constituents that interfere with analysis may need to be separated from the sample before introducing reagents into the system
• Incubation in the chemical reaction phase involves maintaining the required temperature of the reaction mixture to allow complete color development, with different technologies like water baths, precondition stations, and potentiometric slides used for this purpose
• The reaction time in the chemical reaction phase allows the chemical reaction to take place, with automated systems monitoring the completion and rate of the reaction
• The measurement phase involves quantifying the formed products using optical measurement devices like spectrophotometers, reflectance photometers, fluorometers, and luminometers
• Signal processing and data handling in automated analyzers include functions like acquiring response signals, averaging signals, correcting for interferences, establishing calibration curves, and computing rate reactions
• Results from automated analyzers are communicated to the Laboratory Information System (LIS) for recording, managing, and storing data for clinical laboratories
• Total Laboratory Automation (TLA) involves front-end systems for sample processing, analytic "box" for chemical analyses, and back-end systems for post-analytic functions like specimen removal, transport, and data management
• Challenges to Total Laboratory Automation (TLA) include financial investment, skilled personnel requirements, infrastructure remodeling, software interfacing, and limitations in processing stat samples
• Technical difficulties in TLA include the need for increased floor space, skilled technical personnel, infrastructure remodeling, software interfacing, and limitations in processing stat samples
• References for the laboratory automation content include textbooks like "Teitz Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics" and "Clinical Chemistry Techniques, Principles, Correlations"