experimental psychology

• An experiment is an undertaking where a researcher intervenes in the data-generating process by purposefully manipulating elements to show causal relationships between variables and minimize confounding factors
• Confounding variables/factors can alter, change, or contaminate the data, affecting the subject/data
• Quantitative approaches focus on prediction or correlation, while qualitative approaches emphasize relationships
• Experimental psychology seeks to explore and understand behavior through empirical research methods
• The scientific mentality in psychology aims to predict behavior based on natural order, utilizing critical thinking and curiosity
• Objectives of psychological science include description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviors
• Gathering empirical data involves information that is based on observation and experience, which can be verified or disproved through investigation
• Seeking general principles involves theories and laws that explain phenomena and unify scientific facts into an organizing scheme to predict new examples of behavior
• Good thinking in scientific methods requires openness to new ideas, even if they contradict prior beliefs or attitudes
• Self-correction in science involves accepting uncertainty in conclusions and updating theories with new evidence
• Publicizing results and replication are essential in the scientific process to establish reliability and validity of findings
• Observation in psychological science involves systematic noting and recording of events that are observable and studied scientifically
• Measurement in psychology is the assignment of numerical values to objects or events according to conventional rules
• Experimentation tests hypotheses about behavioral events occurring reliably in specific situations, requiring objectivity and testability
• Scientific explanation in psychology involves identifying antecedent conditions and comparing treatment conditions to establish cause and effect relationships
• Establishing cause and effect in experiments involves controlling factors to establish temporal relationships and differentiate between necessary and sufficient conditions
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Elements of ethical research include scientific soundness and ethical soundness

  
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review proposed studies with human participants to ensure they conform to ethical guidelines, safeguarding participants' rights and safety
• IRBs must determine if risks to individuals in a study are outweighed by potential benefits or the importance of knowledge to be gained
• Respect for persons in research involves recognizing individual dignity, informed decision-making, and protecting vulnerable groups like minors, elderly, and those with medical or mental health concerns
• Deception in experiments is acceptable if justified, and non-maleficence in research pertains to minimizing risks and discomfort for participants
• APA's ethical principles for conducting research with human participants emphasize beneficence, justice, and informed consent

  
• The Belmont Report highlights the importance of beneficence, justice, and informed consent in research involving human participants

  
• Experimental Research Approach may not be used when:

  • It is expensive
  • Not practical
  • Circumstances cannot carry out the experiment
  • It is not the nature of your research

  
• Non-experimental approaches include:

  • Test of cause-and-effect relationship
  • Internal validity certifies that variables have caused relationships
  • External validity focuses on applicability and generalizability outside the laboratory setting
• Activities in research include:

  • Degree of imposition of units
  • Degree of manipulation by researchers
  • Degree of imposition of units indicates the significance of the value of units and the data/results gathered
• Non-experimental research consists of 3 parts:

  • Qualitative methods like interviews and communication
  • Non-verbal cues and paralingual aspects
  • Active listening techniques
• Quasi-experimental studies:

  • Appear like experimental but involve minimal manipulation
  • Fall under medium manipulation level
• Types of qualitative studies:

  • Phenomenology: focuses on immediate experiences, consciousness, and underlying structures
  • Case study: descriptive record of an individual's experiences or behaviors, serving various purposes
• Case studies can be done with one participant and focus on live experiences
• Particularistic qualitative studies focus on a specific context like a person or a family
• Naturalistic qualitative studies observe behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural settings
• Participant-observer studies involve the researcher becoming part of the group being studied, building rapport but with potential biases
• Contrived or structured observation studies do not wait for behaviors to occur, but they are less natural
• Archives involve re-examining existing records for new research purposes, like historical studies in specific geographical locations
• Qualitative research emphasizes understanding human and social behavior through thick data collection and a reflective, nonlinear process
• Nonexperimental quantitative approaches include:

  • Correlational approach to determine relationships between traits, behaviors, or events
  • Pearson's R value measures the strength of the relationship
• Correlation does not imply a causal relationship, and outcomes can be positive, negative, or no relationship