Physio 1

• The respiratory system provides oxygen to the blood in the alveoli and removes carbon dioxide, the most abundant metabolism product, from the blood
• The gastrointestinal tract absorbs nutrients like carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids into the extracellular fluid of the blood, while undigested material and waste products are eliminated in feces
• The liver metabolizes substances absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, detoxifies chemicals, and secretes waste into bile for elimination
• The kidneys remove substances like urea, uric acid, ions, and water from the plasma, filtering large quantities of plasma through glomerular capillaries and reabsorbing needed substances back into the blood
• The nervous system is part of the body's protection mechanism, including the immune system that distinguishes between self and foreign cells, and the integumentary system that protects tissues and organs, regulates temperature, and excretes waste
• Positive feedback mechanisms, like blood clotting and childbirth, can be useful in certain situations but can also lead to vicious cycles and death if uncontrolled
• Feed-forward control is a principle used by the brain to require muscle contraction, where sensory nerve signals apprise the brain of correct movement execution
• The cell is the smallest unit of an organism, containing genetic material (DNA) and organelles that perform various functions necessary for life, enclosed within a cell membrane

  
• The cell membrane is a thin, flexible, semipermeable barrier composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, regulating the exchange of materials between the cell and its surroundings
• The cell membrane contains glycoproteins important for cell-cell recognition and adhesion, as well as receptor proteins that bind to specific molecules triggering cellular responses
• The endoplasmic reticulum processes molecules made by the cell and transports them to specific destinations inside or outside the cell, with a watery medium inside the tubules and vesicles
• The lungs provide oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide

  
• The kidneys filter waste products from the blood and produce urine

  
• The liver produces bile to help digest fats

  
• The stomach digests food, while the intestines absorb nutrients

  
• Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged for waste products

  
• As blood is lost, the heart can compensate by pumping more blood per minute, but if too much blood is lost, the heart's pumping effectiveness decreases, potentially leading to death

  
• A cell is the smallest unit of an organism, containing genetic material (DNA) and organelles for various functions, enclosed within a cell membrane

  
• The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins, acting as a barrier and allowing selective molecule passage

  
• Organelles within a cell include the nucleus (containing DNA), mitochondria (producing energy), Golgi apparatus (modifying proteins), endoplasmic reticulum (protein synthesis), lysosomes (digestive enzymes), and more

  
• The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer, selectively permeable to allow certain molecules to pass through, and contains proteins essential for cellular processes

  
• The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and vesicles responsible for protein synthesis and transport, with rough ER having ribosomes for protein synthesis

  
• The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into vesicles, receiving substances from the endoplasmic reticulum for processing

  
• Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, producing energy through cellular respiration and regulating apoptosis (programmed cell death)

  
• The cytoskeleton, made of proteins, maintains cell structure and allows movement
• Lysosomes are vesicular organelles containing enzymes for digestion of cellular structures, food particles, and unwanted matter
• Peroxisomes, similar to lysosomes, catabolize long-chain fatty acids and are believed to form from the endoplasmic reticulum
• Secretory vesicles are formed by the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus system and release substances into the cytoplasm
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing DNA that determines protein characteristics and controls cell activities
• Genes in the nucleus determine the cell's proteins and promote cell reproduction
• The nuclear membrane consists of two bilayer membranes, with nuclear pores for communication between the nucleus and cytoplasm
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis within the cell
• Apoptosis is programmed cell death, a common process during development and adulthood
• Endocytosis involves pinocytosis and phagocytosis for ingesting particles into the cell, while exocytosis releases substances from the cell
• Membrane transport mechanisms include endocytosis, exocytosis, and various types of junctions for cell adhesion
• Different substances cross the cell membrane through processes like simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary and secondary active transport
• Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a solution with low solute concentration to high solute concentration
• It attached only to one surface of the membrane and do not penetrate all the way through

  Peripheral protein
• It is the Membrane carbohydrate

  Glococalyx
• It act as receptor substances for binding hormones

  Glycocalyx