hp lec

• Attachment is a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver

  
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Process of cell injury:

  • Normal cell in homeostasis
  • Exposed to stress or injurious stimulus
  • Can adapt or be injured
  • If adapt, returns to homeostasis
  • If injured, can be reversibly or irreversibly injured
  • Reversibly injured cells can return to homeostasis with treatment
  • Irreversibly injured cells will die, through necrosis or apoptosis

  
• Trisomy 13 is a chromosomal disorder usually not compatible with life, affected fetuses either die in utero or shortly after birth

  
• Histopathology laboratory in diagnostics:

  • Role in diagnostics
  • Understanding pathologic concepts from Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology
  • Interpretation of slides for diagnostic purposes
• Histopathologic techniques:

  • Production of histopathologic slides for disease diagnosis
  • Special staining procedures and related techniques
  • Study and identification of cells in disease diagnosis using cytological techniques
• Pathology is the study of disease, focusing on the structural, biochemical, and functional changes in cells, tissues, and organs that underlie disease
• Purpose of pathology:

  • Explain the why's and wherefores of signs and symptoms in patients
  • Provide a rational basis for clinical care and therapy
  • Serve as a bridge between basic sciences and clinical medicine
• Two traditional divisions of pathology:

  • General Pathology: concerned with common reactions of cells and tissue to injurious stimuli, not tissue-specific
  • Systemic Pathology: examines alterations and underlying mechanisms in organ-specific diseases
• Four aspects of the disease process in pathology:

  1. Etiology: cause of the disease (genetic or acquired)

  2. Pathogenesis: sequence of biochemical and molecular events following exposure to injurious agents

  3. Morphologic changes: structural alterations induced in cells and organs, used for diagnostic purposes

  4. Clinical Manifestations: functional consequences of the disease, leading to symptoms and signs
• Basic terms in pathology:

  • Disease: a pathophysiological response to internal and external factors, causing abnormalities in systemic functions
  • Disorder: a disruption of normal body functions
  • Syndrome: a disease or disorder with multiple identifying features or symptoms
• The seal of Saint Louis University in Baguio City, Philippines

  
• A scientist wearing a mask and gloves while looking at a sample under a microscope, with test tubes and lab equipment in the background

  
• A beach with rocks of different sizes and colors, some smooth and some rough, covered in sand with water in the background

  
• The process of cell injury:

  • Normal cell in homeostasis
  • Exposed to stress or injurious stimulus
  • Can adapt or be injured
  • If adapt, returns to homeostasis
  • If injured, can be reversibly or irreversibly injured
  • Reversibly injured cells can return to homeostasis with treatment
  • Irreversibly injured cells will die, through necrosis or apoptosis

  
• Fetus affected by trisomy 13, a chromosomal disorder usually not compatible with life

  
• Adaptations in response to environmental changes:

  • Hypertrophy: increase in cell size, can be physiologic or pathologic
  • Hyperplasia: increase in cell number, can be physiologic or pathologic
  • Atrophy: decrease in cell size due to various factors, can be physiologic or pathologic
  • Metaplasia: replacement of one differentiated tissue by another
• Hypoxic cell injury:

  • Oxygen deprivation causes cell injury by reducing aerobic oxidative respiration
  • Causes include reduced blood flow (ischemia), inadequate oxygenation of the blood, and decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
  • Depending on severity, cells may adapt, undergo injury, or die
  • Early stage effects include mitochondrial dysfunction and decreased ATP synthesis, leading to cellular swelling and organelle swelling
  • Late stage effects include membrane damage and cell death
• Free radical injury:

  • Free radicals have unpaired electrons and can be generated by normal metabolism, oxygen toxicity, ionizing radiation, and more
  • Mechanisms that degrade free radicals include intracellular enzymes and antioxidants
  • Free radicals can cause severe damage to cells
• Chemical cell injury:

  • Chemical agents and drugs can directly cause cell injury
  • Examples include salt in hypertonic concentrations and trace amounts of oxygen in high concentrations
  • Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is an example that causes liver cell membrane damage
• Infectious agents:

  • Range from viruses, bacteria, fungi, to parasites, causing injury through diverse mechanisms
• Immune system:

  • Injurious reactions to self-antigens cause autoimmune diseases
  • Immune reactions to external agents are important causes of cell and tissue injury
• Genetic abnormalities:

  • Genetic aberrations can lead to congenital malformations, deficient protein function, and trigger cell death when beyond repair
  • DNA sequence variants influence cell susceptibility to injury by chemicals and environmental insults
• Core aspects of pathology include etiology, pathophysiology, and morphological changes influenced by stresses and noxious influences on the living system
• Flowchart describing the process of cell injury:

  • Normal cell in homeostasis
  • Exposed to stress or injurious stimulus
  • Can adapt or be injured
  • If able to adapt, returns to homeostasis
  • If injured, can be reversibly or irreversibly injured
  • Reversibly injured cells can return to homeostasis with treatment
  • Irreversibly injured cells will die, through necrosis or apoptosis

  
• Reversible cell injury:

  • Due to decreased ATP generation, loss of cell membrane integrity, defects in protein synthesis, cytoskeletal damage, and DNA damage
  • Morphology under electron microscope: generalized swelling of cell and organelles, ER dilation, mitochondrial swelling, clumping of nuclear chromatin
  • Morphology under light microscope: cellular swelling, appearance of lipid vacuoles in cytoplasm
• Cell death:

  • Two contrasting morphologic patterns: necrosis and apoptosis
  • Necrosis: degradative and inflammatory reactions after tissue death caused by injury
  • Morphology of necrosis: denaturation of intracellular proteins, enzymatic digestion, autolysis, heterolysis
• Patterns of necrosis:

  • Coagulative necrosis: sudden cutoff of blood supply, preservation of tissue architecture, intense intracellular acidosis, nuclear changes
  • Liquefactive necrosis: digestion, softening, and liquefaction of tissue, seen in CNS injuries and infections
  • Caseous necrosis: part of granulomatous inflammation, cheese-like consistency, leading cause is tuberculosis
  • Gangrenous necrosis: affects lower extremities or bowel, can be wet or dry gangrene
  • Fibrinoid necrosis: associated with immune-mediated vascular damage
  • Fat necrosis: traumatic or enzymatic, involves proteolytic and lipolytic pancreatic enzymes
• Apoptosis is a programmed cell death mechanism that eliminates cells that are no longer needed or are a threat to the organism
• Morphologic features of apoptosis include cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, formation of cytoplasmic blebs and apoptotic bodies, and phagocytosis of apoptotic cells or cell bodies usually by macrophages
• Physiological apoptosis includes the destruction of cells during embryogenesis, hormone-dependent tissue involution, cell loss in proliferating cell populations, and elimination of potentially harmful self-reactive lymphocytes
• Pathological apoptosis eliminates cells that are injured beyond repair without eliciting a host reaction, limiting collateral tissue damage
• Causes of pathologic apoptosis include DNA damage, accumulation of misfolded proteins, cell death in infections, and pathologic atrophy in parenchymal organs
• Intracellular accumulations may occur due to metabolic alterations within the cell, leading to the accumulation of various substances in abnormal amounts
• Main pathways of abnormal intracellular accumulations include inadequate removal of normal substances, accumulation of abnormal endogenous substances, failure to degrade metabolites, and deposition of abnormal exogenous substances
• Lipid accumulation can manifest as fatty change (steatosis) characterized by the accumulation of intracellular triglycerides, and cholesterol and cholesterol esters accumulation in atherosclerosis, xanthomas, and Niemann-Pick disease, type C
• Protein accumulation within cells can occur due to diverse causes, leading to morphologically visible accumulation of excess proteins
• In cholesterol trafficking, there can be cholesterol accumulation in multiple organs
• Excess proteins within cells can cause morphologically visible accumulation and have diverse causes