Unit 1 (REWORK)

• Providence


  The belief that God guides all events in the world, both good and bad.
• Salvation


  In Christianity, deliverance (rescued) from sin and its consequences, leading to eternal life with God.
• Feudalism


  A social and political system based on the exchange of land for military service and protection.
• Bubonic Plague/Black Death


  A deadly disease caused by a bacterium spread by rodents and fleas, which devastated Europe in the mid-14th century.
• Great Chain of Being


  A hierarchical concept that placed all things in the universe in a fixed order of rank and importance, with God (or sometimes nature) at the top and inanimate objects at the bottom.
• Disease (Early Modern Europe) 


  The Black Death had a profound impact on Europe, causing widespread death and social upheaval. This led to changes in labor practices, increased questioning of religious authority, and a general sense of uncertainty and change.
• Religion in Early Modern Europe


  The Catholic Church remained a powerful force throughout this period, but its influence was challenged by the Protestant Reformation, which began in 1517 with Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church. This led to religious wars and a diversification of religious beliefs in Europe.
• Family in Early Modern Europe


  The family remained the basic unit of social organization, providing support and security for its members. However, the roles of family members, particularly women, could vary depending on social status and location.
• Hierarchy in Early Modern Europe

  Despite changes, European society remained hierarchical. The nobility still held significant power and wealth, while the peasantry comprised the vast majority of the population and lived in relative poverty. The Great Chain of Being continued to influence social structure and beliefs about one's place in the world.
• The Renaissance


  A period of cultural rebirth in Europe from the 14th to the 17th century, characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning, a focus on human potential, and significant advancements in art, literature, and science.
• Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?

  Weakened central authority, rise of Italian city-states, wealthy merchant class (patronage), exposure to classical texts (Byzantine influence), stability and prosperity.
• The Crusades


  A series of religious wars fought by Christians to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslims between the 11th and 13th centuries. These wars had a significant impact on cultural exchange and trade between Europe and the East.
• Classic Texts


  Ancient Greek and Roman writings rediscovered during the Renaissance, including works by Plato, Aristotle, Virgil, and Homer. These texts inspired a renewed interest in classical learning and philosophical ideas.
• Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople


  The capture of the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. This event led to the migration of Greek scholars and their classical knowledge westward, further fueling the Renaissance.
• Italian Middle Class


  A growing class of wealthy merchants and bankers who accumulated wealth through trade and commerce. This class provided patronage for artists and scholars during the Renaissance.
• Italian City-States


  Independent city-states in Italy that competed for power and cultural influence during the Renaissance, such as Florence, Venice, and Milan. These city-states provided fertile ground for innovation and artistic expression.
• The Medici Family


  A powerful and wealthy Florentine family who were major patrons of the arts and sciences during the Renaissance. Cosimo de Medici, the most influential member, played a critical role in supporting artists like Leonardo da Vinci.
• Humanism


  A philosophical movement that emphasized the importance of human potential, individuality, and reason. This shift in thought is reflected in Renaissance art through a greater focus on the human form and its potential. Artists depicted realistic and idealized portrayals of people, exploring their emotions, expressions, and interactions with the world around them.
• The Renaissance Man/Woman


  An individual who excels in multiple fields, embodying the humanist ideal of well-roundedness and diverse interests. Leonardo da Vinci is considered the archetypal Renaissance Man.
• Petrarch (1304-1374)


  An Italian scholar and poet considered one of the fathers of the Renaissance. He emphasized the study of classical texts and helped revive interest in Roman literature.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)


  A polymath renowned for his mastery in painting, sculpting, engineering, and scientific inquiry. His iconic works include the Mona Lisa, a portrait celebrated for its enigmatic smile and masterful use of sfumato, and The Last Supper, a mural depicting the final meal Jesus shared with his disciples, renowned for its dramatic composition and use of perspective.
• Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464)


  The first ruler of the Medici dynasty in Florence and a leading patron of the arts during the early Renaissance. He supported famous artists like Donatello and Brunelleschi.
• Johann Gutenberg

  Invented the printing press, revolutionizing communication and knowledge dissemination.
• Niccolò Machiavelli


  Italian diplomat and political philosopher, renowned for his book "The Prince."
• William Shakespeare


  English playwright, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language.
• Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)


  A sculptor, painter, architect, and poet, considered one of the greatest artists of all time. His sculptures, such as the David, a masterpiece of Renaissance anatomy and idealism, and Pieta, a moving depiction of the Virgin Mary mourning Jesus, display his mastery of form and emotional expression. He also painted the awe-inspiring frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, showcasing scenes from the Old Testament and the Last Judgment.
• Donatello (1386-1466)


  A sculptor known for his innovative use of materials and techniques. His David (the first bronze sculpture) revolutionized Renaissance sculpture by depicting a nude male figure in the contrapposto pose, a dynamic stance that conveys movement and tension. Another notable work is the Gattamelata, an equestrian statue considered a landmark in the revival of monumental sculpture.
• Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)


  An architect who made significant contributions to the development of Renaissance architecture. His most famous achievement is the dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence, a feat of engineering that employed innovative techniques and revolutionized the way domes were constructed.
• Classicism


  A renewed interest in the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome, influencing various aspects of Renaissance art. Artists drew inspiration from classical forms, proportions, and themes, incorporating them into their works to create a sense of order, balance, and harmony. This is evident in the use of symmetrical compositions, idealized human figures, and architectural elements like columns and pediments.
• Realism


  A striving for greater naturalism and accuracy in the depiction of figures, landscapes, and objects. This involved a focus on anatomical correctness, realistic lighting and shadow effects, and the use of perspective to create the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space. Techniques like linear perspective and sfumato were developed and refined during this period to achieve greater realism in artworks.
• Reformation


  A 16th-century religious and political movement in Europe that split Western Christianity between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.
• Causes of the Reformation

  Corruption within the Church: Issues like the sale of indulgences, perceived moral failings of clergy, and excessive wealth concentrated in the Church hierarchy fueled discontent.

  Rise of Humanism: Emphasis on individual reason and a critical reading of the Bible challenged traditional Church authority and dogma.

  Printing Press Invention: Enabled rapid dissemination of ideas, including critique of the Church and Protestant theology.
• John Wycliffe (1320-1384)


  Created the first English translation of Bible, challenged the notion that salvation was dependent on papacy and performance of rituals
• John Hus (1369-1415)


  Led a movement adopting Wycliffe’s reforms, supported introducing lay people (ie: not priests) in ceremony of communion
• Martin Luther (1483-1546)


  A German theologian and monk who sparked the Reformation by publishing his 95 Theses in 1517, challenging the sale of indulgences and advocating for a return to scripture as the sole source of religious authority.
• 95 Theses


  Ninety-five propositions written by Martin Luther, posted on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in 1517, criticizing the sale of indulgences and outlining his theological ideas, ultimately leading to his excommunication from the Catholic Church.
• Indulgences


  Certificates issued by the Catholic Church, believed to reduce the temporal punishment for sins after death, the sale of which was criticized by Luther and other reformers for being a form of corruption and undermining the sincerity of repentance.
• Diet of Worms (1521)


  An assembly of the Holy Roman Empire summoned by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, where Luther was called upon to recant his teachings after being excommunicated. He refused, solidifying the rift between him and the Catholic Church.
• How did the Reformation spread?

  Political and social factors: Availability of printed materials, support from rulers seeking independence from the Pope, and grievances against the Church contributed to the spread of Protestantism.
• Differences between Protestantism and Catholicism

  Authority: Protestants rejected the absolute authority of the Pope and emphasized individual interpretation of scripture.

  Salvation: Protestants emphasized faith alone in Christ for salvation, as opposed to the Catholic emphasis on both faith and good works.

  Sacraments: Protestants varied in their views on the number and significance of sacraments, with some rejecting certain practices like transubstantiation.

  Clergy: Protestants advocated for a simpler and less hierarchical clergy structure.