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• Methods of acquiring knowledge:

  • Method of Tenacity: information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or superstition supports it
  • Method of Intuition: information is accepted based on a hunch or "gut feeling"
  • Method of Authority: a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area
  • Method of Faith: a variant of the method of authority where people unquestioningly trust the authority figure and accept information without doubt or challenge

  
• Rationalism seeks answers through logical reasoning, while empiricism uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
• Scientific Method involves specific questions and systematically finding answers through steps like observing behavior, forming hypotheses, making testable predictions, evaluating predictions, and using observations to support, refute, or refine the hypothesis
• Psychological Research Process steps:

  • Find a research idea
  • Form a hypothesis and prediction
  • Define and measure variables
  • Identify and select participants or subjects
  • Select a research strategy
  • Select a research design
  • Conduct the study
  • Evaluate the data
  • Report results
  • Refine or reformulate the research idea
• Qualitative research designs include narrative, grounded theory, phenomenology, case study, and ethnography

  
• Elements of the Scientific Method:

  • Science is empirical, based on observations
  • Science is objective, structured to avoid researcher biases
  • Science is public, making observations available for evaluation and replication
• Pseudoscience lacks key components of scientific research, notably testable and refutable hypotheses
• Key components essential to scientific research include:

  • Testable and refutable hypotheses
  • Objective and unbiased evaluation of evidence
  • Active testing and challenging of theories
  • Adaptation of theories with new evidence
  • Scientific theories grounded in past science

  
• Science vs. Pseudoscience:

  • Primary distinction: testable and refutable hypotheses
  • Science demands objective and unbiased evaluation of evidence
  • Science actively tests and challenges its theories
  • Scientific theories are grounded in past science
• Worldview in qualitative research:

  • Basic set of beliefs guiding action
  • General philosophical orientation about the world and nature of research
  • Constructivism (social constructivism) is an approach to qualitative research
• Constructivism (social constructivism) in qualitative research:

  • Originated from Mannheim, Berger and Luckmann, and Lincoln and Guba
  • Individuals seek understanding of the world view in which they live and work
  • Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences
  • Researchers aim to make sense of the meanings others have about the world
• Qualitative research characteristics:

  • Natural setting
  • Researcher as key instrument
  • Multiple sources of data
  • Inductive and deductive data analysis
  • Participants' meanings
  • Emergent design
  • Reflexivity
  • Holistic account
• Types of qualitative research design:

  1. Phenomenology: lived experiences

  2. Narrative: life stories

  3. Case study: in-depth investigation

  4. Ethnography: study of ethnic groups

  5. Grounded theory: theory generation
• Qualitative research focuses on answering "Why" and "How" questions, while quantitative research delves more into "What" and "When" aspects

  
• Steps in narrowing down a broad research topic:

  • Choose a general topic area
  • Give a specific description of the topic area
  • Mention an aspect of the specific topic
  • Note down extra specifics about the topic
  • Turn the topic into a sentence or statement
  • Fine-tune the topic's focus using elements such as time, place, and relationships
• Tips for narrowing a research topic:

  • Focus on just one angle, perspective, or lens
  • Figure out if the initial unit can be partitioned into smaller components for more precise analysis
  • Consider the methodology used to gather data to reduce the scope of interpretative analysis
• Field methods in psychology:

  • Place: Smaller geographical units mean a narrower topical focus
  • Relationship: Examine how variables or perspectives relate to each other
  • Time: Assign study periods specific timeframes
  • Type: Focus the study topic on a particular class of people, phenomena, or places
  • Combination: You can choose at least 2 tips to narrow down to a specific topic
• Primary Source:

  • Firsthand report of observations or research results
  • Examples: journal articles, thesis/dissertation, conference presentations

  Secondary Source:

  • Description or summary of another person's work
  • Examples: books, systematic review/meta-analysis, newspapers/magazines
• Purpose of a literature search:

  • Gain familiarity with current research in a specific area of interest
  • Find a small set of research studies to serve as the basis for your own research idea
• Conducting a literature search:

  • Use subject words to identify and describe variables and participant characteristics
  • Note author names to identify leading researchers in the area
  • Utilize online databases like PsychINFO, PsycARTICLES, ERIC, and MEDLINE with Full Text
• Screening articles during a literature search:

  • Use the title as the first basis for screening
  • Use the abstract as the second screening device
  • Look for a full-text version of the article if still interested after title and abstract review
• Ending a literature search:

  • Keep in mind the purpose of the search
  • When comfortable with knowledge about the topic area and found relevant research studies, the search is successful
• Finding an idea for research study from a published research article:

  • Find suggestions for future research in journal articles
  • Combine or contrast existing results to generate new research ideas
  • Critical reading of past studies in the introduction, discussion, and references sections
• Reflexivity: separate your views to the views of participants; remind ourselves that we are researchers and we report their views