organic

• Attachment is a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Hydrocarbons are composed of Carbon and hydrogen, with important fuels like Petrol, kerosene, coal gas, CNG, LPG being hydrocarbons or their mixtures
• Petroleum and natural gas are major sources of aliphatic hydrocarbons, while coal is an important source of aromatic hydrocarbons
• Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n+2, showing chain, position, and optical isomerism
• Alkanes have low boiling points due to their non-polar nature, with the boiling point increasing with the number of carbon atoms
• Alkanes do not show regular variation in melting point with an increase in molecular size
• Alkanes undergo combustion, oxidation, and substitution reactions like halogenation
• Halogenation of alkanes takes place through a free radical mechanism, with reactivity order: F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
• Halogenation reactions proceed through initiation, propagation, and termination steps
• Nitration of alkanes occurs via a free radical mechanism at high temperatures, resulting in a mixture of nitroalkanes
• Sulphonation involves the replacement of a hydrogen atom of an alkane by a -SO3H group
• Isomerization, aromatization, and thermal decomposition are methods used with alkanes
• Thermal decomposition of higher alkanes at high temperatures results in the breakdown to lower alkanes and alkenes
• The action of steam on alkanes, with the catalyst nickel or alumina, is used for the industrial preparation of hydrogen from natural gas
• Isomerization reactions involve the conversion of one isomer into another
• The reaction of RH + OH gives Ro + HOH in isomerization reactions
• The reaction of Ro + oNO2 results in RNO2 in isomerization reactions
• The reaction of HO-NO2 leads to HOo + oNO2 in isomerization reactions
• The reaction of HO-SO3 results in HOo + oSO3H in isomerization reactions
• The boiling points of branched chain alkanes are less than the straight-chain isomers due to the compactness of the molecule
• The magnitude of Van der Waals' forces in alkanes is directly proportional to the molecular size, affecting boiling points
• The reactivity order of halogens in halogenation reactions is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
• The rate of replacement of hydrogens of alkanes in halogenation reactions is 3° > 2° > 1°
• Halogenation reactions proceed through a free radical mechanism with initiation, propagation, and termination steps
• The melting point of alkanes does not show regular variation with an increase in molecular size
• In organic chemistry, s and p orbitals are involved in hybridization, leading to three types of hybridization: sp3 (in alkanes) - Tetrahedral in shape, sp2 (in alkenes) - Planar structure, sp (in alkynes) - Linear molecule
• Functional groups in organic compounds are atoms or groups of atoms joined in a specific manner that determine the chemical properties of the compound, examples include hydroxyl group (—OH), aldehyde group (—CHO), and carboxylic acid group (—COOH)
• A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with the same functional group, similar chemical properties, and successive members differing by —CH2 units in molecular formula
• In naming organic compounds, the IUPAC system includes three parts: word root (representing the number of carbon atoms in the principal chain), suffix (indicating the type of bond in the carbon atoms), and prefix (appearing before the word root)
• Isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae and properties, with two main types: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism
• Structural isomerism types include chain, position, functional, metamerism, and tautomerism, each differing in the arrangement of atoms within the compound
• Stereoisomerism is caused by different arrangements of atoms or groups in space, with two types: geometrical (cis-trans isomerism) and optical isomerism
• A covalent bond can undergo fission through homolytic fission (each atom acquires one bonding electron) or heterolytic fission (one atom acquires both bonding electrons), leading to the formation of reaction intermediates like carbonium ions and carbanions
• Organic ions containing a positively charged carbon atom are called carbonium ions or carbocations, formed by heterolytic bond fission
• Tertiary carbonium ions are more stable than secondary, which are more stable than primary due to the +I effect associated with alkyl groups
• Primary carbanions are more stable than secondary, which are more stable than tertiary, due to the +I effect associated with alkyl groups
• Electrophiles are positively charged or neutral species that are electron deficient, while nucleophiles are negatively charged or neutral species with a lone pair of electrons
• Electron displacement effects in covalent bonds include:

  • Inductive effect
  • Electromeric effect
  • Resonance or Mesomeric effect
  • Hyperconjugation effect