nursing research

• Guidelines for developing research instruments:

  • Must suit the purpose of the study
  • Should gather needed data for testing hypotheses and answering research questions
  • Indicators must be valid and arranged logically
  • Indicators should be stated to avoid bias in respondents' perceptions or reactions
  • Instrument should be reliable
  • Constructed to minimize cheating
  • Easy to administer with specific and simple directions
  • Appropriate and reliable scale of measurement
• Types of research instruments:

  1. Questionnaire: most frequently used clerical research instrument

  2. Scanning Questionnaire: administered in face-to-face interviews
• Advantages of questionnaires:

  • Facilitate data gathering
  • Easy to test data for reliability and validity
  • Less time-consuming than interviews and observations
  • Preserves anonymity and confidentiality of respondents' reactions and answers
• Disadvantages of questionnaires:

  • Printing and mailing can be costly
  • Response rate may be low
  • Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers
  • Less chance to clarify ambiguous answers
  • Literacy and no physical handicaps required for respondents
• Types of interviews:

  • Structured: guided by prepared questions
  • Unstructured: questions asked at random
• Methods of interviewing:

  • Personal interview: questions asked facing the interviewee
  • Telephone surveys: popular method for easy contact
  • Mail surveys: allow respondents to answer at their convenience
  • Computer-directed interviews: respondents enter answers directly into the computer
  • E-mail surveys: efficient and economical
  • Internet/Intranet (Web Page) surveys: extremely fast with thousands of responses in hours
• Scales are devices designed to assign a numeric score to people to place them on a continuum with respect to attributes being measured
• Types of self-reports:

  • Measure where a person reports their own behavior or mental contents
• Anecdotal records and other documentary materials are personal accounts of the researcher written for recording purposes
• Preparation of the questionnaire and interview schedule involves:

  • Deciding on data collection method
  • Determining information sought
  • Preparing a cover letter
  • Drafting questions needed for desired information
  • Reviewing by experts and pre-testing
  • Administering the revised draft to actual study respondents
• Types of questions in the interview guide/schedule:

  • Structured for formal interviews
  • Unstructured for informal interviews
• Types of close-ended questions:

  • Dichotomous items
  • Multichotomous items
  • Fixed-alternative or multiple choice items
  • Projective questions
  • Cafeteria questions
  • Rank-order questions
  • Checklist
• Characteristics of good questions:

  • Specifically answer research problems
  • Clearly and briefly stated
  • Objective and detached from researcher's judgement
  • Easy to interpret and tabulate
  • Appropriate language for respondents
  • Neatly printed
  • Bear researcher's signature
• Pilot study or pre-test of instruments:

  • Smaller version of proposed study to refine methodology
  • Also known as field test or dry-run
• Purposes for conducting a field test:

  • Determine feasibility of the study
  • Validate instruments
  • Check reliability
  • Provide a "dry run" of the instrument
  • Ensure correct language
  • Assess and evaluate study procedures
  • Make revisions before actual investigation
• Criteria for evaluating the instrument:

  • Reliability
  • Validity
  • Efficiency
  • Sensitivity
  • Objectivity
  • Speed
  • Reactivity
  • Simplicity
  • Meaningfulness
• Types of research data:

  • Cross-sectional data
  • Retrospective data
  • Prospective data
• Categories of data collection:

  • Primary data collection
  • Secondary data collection
• Elements to consider in data collection:

  • Nature of research problem
  • Design of the study
  • Variables
  • Sampling units
  • Time
  • Adequacy
• Methods of collecting data:

  • Use of already existing or available data
  • Use of observers' data
• Types of non-participant observers:

  • Overt non-participant observer
  • Covert non-participant observer
• Two methods of observations:

  • Structured observations
  • Unstructured observations
• Categories of information gathered through observations:

  • Characteristics, attitudes, and conditions of subjects
  • Verbal and non-verbal communication
  • Patients' activities
  • Skill in task performance
  • Environmental conditions
• Disadvantages of observations:

  • Waiting for expected events
  • Potential bias from observer presence
  • Extensive training needed for observers
  • Contradictory data from multiple observers
  • Personal involvement of observers with subjects
  • Limitation of observations by observer position
• Use of self-recording or reporting approach instruments
• Use of Delphi Technique:

  • Classic Delphi
  • Modified Delphi
  • Policy Delphi
  • Real-time Delphi
  • E-Delphi
• Critical Incident Technique: set of principles