Challenges to Elizabeth Home and Abroad, 1569-88

• Why did the Northern Earls rebel?

  • The Earls and their followers wanted to make England Catholic again.
  • They especially resented the appointment of James Pilkington, a Protestant, as Bishop of Durham
  • They had lost a lot of influence at court under Elizabeth. They resented the 'new men', such as William Cecil and Robert Dudley.
  • Elizabeth's refusal to name an heir, or to marry and have a child, created uncertainty. The earls feared civil war and loss of power and wealth under a future Protestant monarch
• The rebels in the revolt of the Northern Earls

  • Mary Queen of Scots
  • Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk - senior noble and Protestant, with family links to old northern Catholic families. Planned to marry Mary Queen of Scots
  • Charles Neville, Earl of Westmorland - major Catholic landowner
  • Jane Neville - wife of Charles Neville and Thomas Howard's sister
  • Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland - major Catholic landowner
  • Ann Percy, wife
• The Marriage Plan

  • Mary would marry the Duke of Norfolk, remove Elizabeth and become queen herself. She told the Spanish Ambassador in 1569 that she 'shall be queen of England in three months' and that 'mass shall be said all over the country'.
  • Robert Dudley told Elizabeth of the plot leading to Norfolk's arrest and imprisonment in the Tower
• Progress of the Revolt

  • Northumberland and Westmorland, with their wives' support, continued with the revolt. They took control of Durham cathedral, celebrating mass there, as well of other northern churches, and began moving south
  • Elizabeth moved Mary to Coventry, to stop her escaping to join the rebels
  • The rebels captured Hartlepool, but support from Spain never arrived
• Why did the revolt of the Northern Earls fail?

  • Support from Spain never arrived
  • Many northern landowners remained loyal to Elizabeth
  • Many landowners didn't want to risk losing wealth by backing a failed revolt
• Significance of the Revolt of the Northern Earls

  • It showed that Mary QoS couldn't be trusted, and she remained in prison
  • The pope excommunicated Elizabeth and called on loyal Catholics to dispose her. This encouraged further Catholic plots against her
  • The loyalty of England's Catholics was now in doubt, forcing the government to take harsh steps against them
  • Elizabeth's control over the North was strengthened
• Background of Ridolfi Plot

  • The failure of the revolt of the Northern Earls meant Elizabeth and her Privy Council treated Catholics with suspicion
  • The Earl of Huntington, a Protestant, led the council of the North. He implemented laws against Catholics in the North. This angered many Catholics, now prepared to plot against Elizabeth, leading to the Ridolfi Plot
• Progress of the Ridolfi Plot

  1. Roberto Ridolfi was an Italian banker who lived in England and worked as a spy for the pope.
  2. In 1571, Ridolfi plotted to murder Elizabeth, start a Spanish invasion and put Mary QoS on the English throne. Mary would marry the Duke of Norfolk
  3. In March 1571, Ridolfi travelled to the Netherlands to discuss the plot with the pope , Philip II, and the Duke of Alba. He had a letter signed by the Duke of Norfolk in which Norfolk declared himself as a Catholic and pledged the lead the rebellion with Philip II's support
• Progress of the Ridolfi Plot

  4. Philip instructed the Duke of Alba to prepare 10,000 troops to send across the English Channel in support of the Revolt

  5. Sir William Cecil discovered the plot and by Autumn 1571, was able to prove that Norfolk was guilty of high treason (plotting against Elizabeth). Ridolfi remained abroad and never returned to England

  6. When parliament reconvened in May 1572, it demanded the execution of Norfolk and Mary QoS. Elizabeth signed Norfolk's death warrant leading to his execution. Yet she was reluctant to punish Mary, and even refused to remove her from the succession (she had to be careful as executing Mary would further anger English Catholics and possibly unite France and Spain against)
• The Significance of the Ridolfi Plot

  • It reinforced the threat from Spain, as Philip II would support any plots against Elizabeth
  • The threat from Spain meant that England needed to improve relations with France, as England could not fight both both countries at once
  • It confirmed that English Catholics and Mary remained a threat to Elizabeth
  • The government began to monitor Catholics more closely and treat them more severely. Two laws passed in 1581 meant that families could be fined for sheltering priests and charged with treason if they converted people to Catholics
• Throckmorton plot, 1583

  The French Duke of Guise, a cousin of Mary, plotted to invade England and overthrow Elizabeth, free Mary and make England Catholic again

  • Philip II offered to help pay for the revolt and the pope approved of the conspiracy
  • Francis Throckmorton, a young Englishman, would pass letters between the plotters and Mary
• Failure of the Throckmorton Plot

  • Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's Secretary of State, discovered the plot in May 1583.
  • In November 1583, Walsingham's spies found papers at Throckmorton's house that revealed his part in the conspiracy
  • Throckmorton was arrested and tortured. He confessed to his involvement and was executed
• Significance of the Throckmorton plot

  • Revealed extent of threat posed by foreign Catholic powers, English Catholics and Mary QoS
  • Showed potential from from France and Spain. Elizabeth had to take care these Catholic powers did not unite against her
  • Throckmorton's papers included a list of Catholic sympathisers in England, confirming government's fears of 'enemy within'
  • Government treated English Catholics with greater suspicion. Many fled England after the plot. Up to 11,000 were imprisoned, or kept under surveillance or house arrest. An Act of Parliament 1585 made helping or sheltering Catholic priests punishable with death
• The Babington Plot

  1. The Duke of Guise would invade England, murder Elizabeth and put Mary on the throne. Philip II and the Pope supported the plot
  2. Anthony Babington, a Catholic, wrote to Mary in July 1586 about the conspiracy.
  3. Sir Francis Walsingham intercepted and read Babington's letters to Mary, which clearly demonstrated her awareness of, support for, and involvement in the conspiracy.
  4. Babington and the plotters were sentenced to death
  5. In October 1586, Mary was sentenced to death for her part in the plot. Elizabeth delayed, but signed Mary's death warrant in February 1587. Mary was beheaded shortly after.
• Significance of the Babington plot

  • Elizabeth's situation was more precarious than with previous plots
  • By 1585, England and Spain were virtually at war.
  • Elizabeth's government became determined to crush the Catholic threat.
  • The persecution of Catholics intensified. 31 priests were executed across the country in 1586
  • The plot led to the execution of Mary, ending any hope of replacing Elizabeth with a Catholic heir
• Why was Walsingham important?

  • His actions provided intelligence that defeated plots, such as the Throckmorton and Babington plots
  • His intelligence unmasked the activities of Mary. This put pressure on Elizabeth to execute her and led to her execution
  • His actions also deterred further plots against Elizabeth
• Walsingham's spy network

  • He had a network of spies and informants in every town
  • Some of Walsingham's agents were paid and trained by the government
  • Others were paid informants. These were often people who knew or were likely to know potential plotters against the queen.
  • He also used spies abroad. He had agents in France, Germany, Spain, Italy and North Africa
• Walsingham's use of Ciphers

  • Walsingham used ciphers (codes) for all correspondence. This meant that letters would be written in code and translated out of code once received.
  • Walsingham also had the means of decoding the codes of those who plotted against Elizabeth. He had specialists, such as Thomas Phelippes, to help him do this
• Walsingham's use of torture and execution

  • Some priests were tortured, to deter others and force them to give up information. Under Walsingham, 130 priests and 60 of their supporters were killed
  • The threat of execution and torture was often more effective, as it would provide Walsingham with informants he could use against any plotters
  • Walsingham only used torture and execution in the most serious cases, as he did not want ordinary people to sympathise with plotters
• Agents provocateurs

  • Walsingham employed 'agents provocateurs' to encourage those who were seen as a threat to Elizabeth to plot against her. This justified their arrest and execution.
• Why was Mary QoS executed?

  • Mary had been involved in a series of plots against Elizabeth
  • Walsingham's spies had unearthed evidence that Mary was involved with the plotters. This led to her trial and conviction under the Act for Preservation of the Queen's Safety
  • The Spanish threat was very real by 1587, with rumours of invasion. The fact that Philip II had been involved in previous plots involving Mary heightened the threat of Mary
  • Mary remained a rallying point for disgruntled Catholics who saw her as a legitimate queen
  • The pope excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570, making Mary an alternative Catholic monarch who could take the throne by foreign invasion
• Why was the execution of Mary QoS significant?

  • Mary was an anointed monarch, so executing her set a dangerous precedent. Elizabeth could meet a similar fate, in the wrong circumstances. So the execution made Elizabeth and her heirs more vulnerable in the future
  • The execution further angered Spain and gave Philip II further reason to attack England, as Mary left her claim to the throne to Philip on her death
  • The execution removed an important threat to Elizabeth, as Mary had been the focus of many Catholic plots to overthrow Elizabeth
  • The execution made the succession even more uncertain, increasing the chances of a civil war on Elizabeth's death
• Religious Rivalry

  Under Mary Tudor, Spain and England were allies. As a protestant country under Elizabeth I, England's relationship with Spain soured:

  • Philip II, backed by the pope, saw Protestantism as a threat to the authority of the Catholic Church
  • Many English Protestants saw Spain and Catholicism as a threat
  • Philip II of Spain became involved in Catholic plots against Elizabeth
• Spanish Policy in the Netherlands

  • The Netherlands had been Spanish since the 1400s, but many Dutch became Protestant.
  • A brutal Spanish campaign under the Duke of Alba aimed to restore Catholicism there
  • Spanish Catholics executed many Dutch Protestants following the Council of Troubles
  • Spain's campaign in the Netherlands angered many in Elizabeth's government, who now saw Spain as hostile - direct threat to English Protestantism and to England itself
• The English Response to the Spanish

  • Elizabeth's government decided to secretly help Dutch Protestants resist the Spanish.
  • It allowed Dutch rebel ships (the Sea Beggars) safe passage in English ports
  • It provided financial support to others fighting the Spanish , including volunteers led by John Casimir, a foreign mercenary
  • English privateers, such as Sir Francis Drake, were encouraged to attack Spanish shipping and colonies in Latin America
  • Elizabeth even proposed marriage to the French heir, the Duke of Alencon, so he might be persuaded to fight Spain in the Netherlands
• The Spanish and the Pacification of Ghent

  • By 1576, the Spanish government in the Netherlands found the war there unaffordable.
  • A lack of funds meant Spanish troops went unpaid
  • This resulted in the Spanish Fury, when Spanish troops looted Antwerp
  • After the looting, all 17 Dutch provinces (Catholic and Protestant) joined an alliance against the Spanish, drawn up in a document called the Pacification of Ghent. It called for all Spanish troops to be expelled from the Netherlands
• Restoring Spanish Influence

  By late 1584:

  • Spanish control of the Netherlands had been restored under the Duke of Parma
  • England's allies, the Duke of Alencon and William of Orange, were dead
  • The Treaty of Joinville strengthened relations between Catholic France and Spain
  • Dutch Catholics were ready to make peace with Spain, strengthening Philip II's position there
• England and Spain close to war

  By 1587, England and Spain were close to war

  • Philip II blamed English support of the Dutch rebels for making the situation worse
  • Philip II blamed English privateers for attacks on Spanish shipping
  • Elizabeth's government blamed Spain for a series of plots against Elizabeth
• Commercial rivalry with Spain

  • By the 1570s, England and Spain had emerged as commercial rivals.
  • Both competed against each other for access to the markets and resources of the other countries
  • Spain had conquered Mexico and Peru in the early 1500s. This provided the Spanish with vast amounts of gold and silver, which were regularly shipped back to Spain. It also gave Spain control over the trade in sugar cane and tobacco.
  • By Elizabeth's reign, Britain had emerged as a trade rival. Sailors, including Sir Francis Drake, were journeying great distances on trading voyages to different parts of the world
• English Hostility towards Spain

  Spain represented a major barrier to English trade because:

  • Spanish control of the Netherlands and the Schledt and Rhine estuaries closed off one of the principal trade routes used by English traders in Europe - reducing the profits and incomes of English merchants
  • Spain's control of the New World also denied English traders profit-making opportunities, because all trade there had to be licensed by the Spanish government
  • Therefore, English traders' efforts to find ways of making money brought them into conflict with the Spanish government
• Privateering Privateering

  • English merchants, financed by private investors, including Elizabeth herself, raided Spanish colonies as well as ships voyaging to and from the New World
  • In one raid alone, Sir Francis Drake captured £40,000 in Spanish silver
  • A second expedition, involving Drake's circumnavigation of the globe, resulted in the capture of a further £400,000 of silver and gold
  • Elizabeth also encouraged Dutch rebels (the Sea Beggars) to attack Spanish ships sailing between Spain and the Netherlands
  • By 1580, loss of silver meant that the Spanish government in the Netherlands was bankrupt and could not afford to pay its soldiers
• Deteriorating relations

  By the early 1580s, the actions of Drake and other privateers had brought England and Spain to the brink of war

  • Elizabeth, by knighting Drake, demonstrated her defiance of and hostility towards Spain's commercial interests in Europe and the New World. Her actions showed her support of the financial losses suffered by the Spanish government as a result of English privateering
  • For Philip II, Drake and other privateers were little more than pirates who needed to be removed by war if necessary. So, getting rid of Elizabeth and Drake by war was the only remaining means of protecting Spain's commercial interests
• By 1585, Elizabeth began to support the Dutch rebels directly by sending troops to the Netherlands under Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Drake continued to attack Spanish shipping and raided the Spanish fleet at Cadiz
• Background to the war with Spain

  • England signed the Treaty of Nonsuch in August 1585 with the Dutch Protestant Rebels. This made war with Spain more likely.
  • By the terms of the treaty, England would pay for an army of 7,400 English soldiers, led by and English Commander - Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who would work with the rebels' government, the Council of State.
  • It was likely that this group would fight the Spanish, although war had not been formally declared
• The campaign in the Netherlands 1585-88

  The campaign was not a great success:

  • Elizabeth still hoped to negotiate with Philip II. England was not formally at war with Spain and so Leicester was not given enough resources to defeat the Spanish
  • Some of Dudley's officers, William Stanley and Rowland York, defected to the Spanish side. This damaged relations with the Dutch rebels
  • Dudley and Elizabeth had different aims in the Netherlands. Dudley wanted to end Spanish rule, making the Netherlands an independent country. Elizabeth wanted to go back to how the Netherlands had been governed in 1548 when it remained under Spanish control but with certain freedoms
• The results of the campaign

  The campaign achieved very little:

  • Dudley could only disrupt Spanish forces in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma. He could not defeat them
  • Dudley did manage to stop the Spanish from capturing a deep-water port, Ostend, on the English Channel. This was important because it denied the Spanish Armada the chance to link up with the Duke of Parma's troops
• Drake's Attack on Cadiz

  • Since January 1586, Spain had been gradually building up its Armada, Philip's enormous invasion fleet that was due to help the Spanish army invade England
  • In March 1587, Elizabeth ordered Francis Drake to attack the Spanish Navy. Between 19 and 22 April, he attacked Cadiz, a major Spanish naval port, destroying 30 ships and much of the fleet's supplies. This attack was called the 'singeing of the King of Spain's beard'
  • Drake then continued to attack Spanish coastal ports and treasure ships
• The importance of Drake's attacks on Cadiz and Spain

  • Spain had to take a break from building the Armada to defend itself against Drake
  • The disruption Drake caused did not stop the Armada, be it delayed it by a year
  • This bought England more time to prepare for the eventual Spanish attack and invasion in 1588
• Why did Philip launch the Spanish Armada?

  Religious conflict

  • Philip II, a Catholic had already failed plots to get rid of Elizabeth. The Armada and invasion gave him another opportunity to remove her and replace her with a Catholic
  • The papacy had wanted to overthrow Elizabeth since excommunicating her
  • The pope promised absolution (forgiveness of sins) to those taking part in the Armada
• Why did Philip launch the Spanish Armada?

  Politics and Diplomacy

  • The Treaty of Joinville meant Spain could attack England without risking war with France
  • The Treaty of Nonsuch meant English soldiers were at war with Spain, so Philip could justify attacking England
  • England would be a useful addition to Philip's empire, as it would give Spain full control of the Atlantic