Research methods

• What is an aim?

  A general expression of what the researcher intends to investigate
• What is a hypothesis?

  A statement of what the researcher believes to be true
• What is a directional hypothesis?

  States whether changes are greater or lesser, positive or negative, etc
• What is a non-directional hypothesis?

  Doesn't state the direction, just that there is a difference, correlation, association
• What are extraneous variables?

  'Nuisance' variables that do not vary systematically with the IV. A researcher may control some of these
• What are confounding variables?

  Change systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure if any observed change in the DV is due to the CV or the IV. CVs must be controlled, e.g. participant variables
• What are demand characteristics?

  Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study
• What are investigator effects?

  Any effect of the investigator's behaviour on the outcome of the research (the DV)
• What is randomisation?

  The use of chance when designing investigations to control the effects of bias
• What is standardisation?

  Using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study
• What are control groups?

  Control groups are used for the purpose of setting a comparison. They act as a baseline and help establish causation
• What is a single-blind trial?

  A participant doesn't know the aims of the study so that demand characteristics are reduced
• What is a double-blind trial?

  Both participant and researcher don't know the aims of the study to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects
• What are the three experimental methods?

  Independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs
• What is the matched pairs experimental method?

  One group do condition A and a second do condition B. Participants should be randomly allocated to experimental groups
• What is the repeated measures experimental method?

  Same participants take part in all conditions of an experiment. The order of conditions should be counterbalanced to avoid order effects
• What is the matched pairs experimental method?

  Two groups of participants are used but they are also related to each other by being paired on participant variable(s) that matter for the experiment
• What are participant variables?

  May act as confounding variables in an independent groups design because people on each situation are different. This may be the cause of the change in the DV- rather than the manipulation of the IV
• What are order effects?

  They come about when participants are tested more than once- as in repeated measures design. This might lead to better performance through practice, or worse performance due to boredom or fatigue
• What are the four types of experiment?

  Laboratory experiment, field experiment, natural experiment, and quasi-experiment
• What is a laboratory experiment?

  A controlled environment where extraneous and confounding variables can be regulated. Participants go to the researcher, and the IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded
• What is a field experiment?

  Occurs in a natural setting. The researcher goes to the participants, and the Iv is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded
• What is a natural experiment?

  The experimenter does not manipulate the IV. The IV would have varied even if the experimenter wasn't interested. The DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be measured by the experimenter
• What is a quasi-experiment?

  The IV is based on a pre-existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists. DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be measured by the experimenter
• What is a population?

  The large group of people that a researcher is interested in studying, for example college students from a specific area
• What is a sample?

  As it is usually not possible to include all members of the population in the study, a smaller group is selected- the sample
• What are the five sampling techniques?

  Opportunity, volunteer, random, systematic, and stratified
• What is an opportunity sample and how is it obtained?

  • People who are most available, i.e. the nearest/easiest to obtain
  • Ask people nearby, e.g. ask the students in your class to take part
• What is a volunteer sample and how is it obtained?

  • In a volunteer sample, participants select themselves
  • Obtained using advertising. For example, placing an ad in a newspaper or noticeboard and participants come to you
• What is a random sample and how is it obtained?

  • Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
  • Obtained using a lottery method. All members of the target population are given a number and placed in a hat or tombola
• What is a systematic sample and how is it obtained?

  • Participants are selected using a set 'pattern' (sampling frame)
  • Every nth person is selected from a list or the target population
• What is a stratified sample and how is it obtained?

  • Participants are selected according to their frequency in the target population
  • Obtained through subgroups (or strata) being identified, such as gender or age groups. The relative percentages of the subgroups in the population are reflected in the sample
• What are the five main ethical problems?

  Conflict, informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy/confidentiality
• What is the ethical problem of conflict?

  When a conflict exists between the rights of participants and the aims of the research
• How can the ethical problem of conflict be resolved?

  Ethical committees weigh up costs (e.g. potential harm) and benefits (e.g. value of research) before deciding whether a study should go ahead
• What is the ethical problem of informed consent?

  Participants should be able to make an informed judgement about whether to take part
• How can the ethical problem of informed consent be dealt with?

  Too much information may affect participants' behaviour so alternative forms of consent are:

  • Presumptive- ask a similar group
  • Prior general- agree to be deceived
  • Retrospective- get consent after the study
• What is the ethical issue of deception?

  Deliberately misleading or withholding information so consent is not informed
• How can the ethical issue of deception be dealt with?

  At the end of a study, participants should be given a debrief where they are advised of: the true aims of the investigation, details that were not given during the study (e.g. existence of other groups or conditions), what their data will be used for, and their right to withhold data
• What is the ethical issue of protection from harm?

  Participants should be at no more risk than they would be in everyday life