physics 2 3rd qrt

• DNA cloning - researchers make many copies of a piece of DNA, such as a gene
• Plasmid - inserting the gene into a piece of circular DNA
• plasmid - double-stranded generally circular DNA sequences that are capable of automatically replicating in a host cell.
• DNA Ligase - used to join two DNA molecules have matching ends.
• restriction enzyme - is a DNA-cutting enzyme that recognizes specific sites in DNA.
• restriction sites - bind to specific sequences of DNA
• vector -  itself is generally a DNA sequence that consists of an insert (transgene) and a larger sequence that serves as the "backbone" of the vector.
• vector -  itself is generally a DNA sequence that consists of an insert (transgene) and a larger sequence that serves as the "backbone" of the vector.
• expression vectors - are specifically for the expression of the transgene in the target cell, and generally have a promoter sequence that drives expression of the transgene
• transcription vectors -  are only capable of being transcribed but not translated
• vector transformation - is the process by which exogenous DNA is transferred into the host cell.
• chemical transformation - transformation of a DNA construct into a host cell
• Heat shock - is used to temporarily form pores in the cell membrane, allowing transfer of the exogenous DNA into the cell.
• Particle bombardment - (biolistics/ gene gun), is typically used for the transformation of plant cells. 
• Electroporation - uses an electrical pulse to introduce new species, usually polar molecules, into cells
• Polymerase chain reaction - is a laboratory technique for rapidly producing millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in
• DNA sequencing - refers to the general laboratory technique for determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule.
• Natural selection - is a mechanism of evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success
• Natural selection - is a mechanism of evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success
• Artificial selection - is the process of selecting plants or animal individuals for breeding. This principle was developed from our understanding of heritable traits.
• Genetic drift - is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution. In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance, leave behind a few more descendants (and genes) than other individuals
• bottleneck effect - reduced in size by a natural disaster
• founder effect- when a small group splits off from the main population to found a colony.
• Reduced genetic variation - means that the population may not be able to adapt to new selection pressures
• mutation - is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
• Substitution - exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change in a single "chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G).
• Substitution - exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change in a single "chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G).
• Insertion - are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in the DNA.
• Deletions - are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted
• Deletions - are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted
• Frameshift - Since protein-coding DNA is divided into codons three bases long, insertions and deletions can alter a gene so that its message is no longer correctly parsed.
• Recombination - A process in which pairs of chromosomes swap DNA with one another
• Crossing over - is a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same type are lined up.