Ancient philosophical influences

• why senses are important for Aristotle

  -Aristotle is often called the first scientist because he categorised everything and tried to describe what he saw, relying on observation & the senses

  --> Aristotle's four causes are part of this

  -Aristotle, like Plato, observed that everything in our world is changing

  -Greek word he used to describe change/ movement was motus

  -Aristotle noticed that beings changed, from actuality to potentiality, caused by external forces
• actuality to potentiality example

  -the kettle is actually full of cold water but has the potential to be hot

  -I can make a cup of tea which is actually hot but has the potential to be cold if I forget to drink it

  -Aristotle's four causes describe this process of change, observed using our senses
• the material cause (what is it made of?)

  -the material cause describes the matter or substance that something is made from e.g. silver is the material cause of a silver ring, its matter

  -if the ring was melted down, you would be left with the lump of silver, its matter or material cause

  -this doesn't yet explain how or why motus and change occurs
• the efficient cause (how did it come into existence?)

  -the efficient cause describes the process of coming into existence

  -the efficient cause of the ring would be the silversmith who used the matter (lump of silver) to make a ring

  -this is often the way we use the word 'cause' to describe how an effect came about

  -the efficient cause describes the process of change, from a lump of silver metal into a ring
• the formal cause (what is its shape or characteristics?)

  -the formal cause describes how we know what something is, its shape and characteristics

  -the formal cause of a ring is that it has a circular shape, a hole through the middle and perhaps claws to hold a diamond

  -helps us to distinguish between a ring and a bowl, as both could be made of silver (material cause) by a silversmith (efficient cause) but they have different formal causes

  -the formal cause explains motus by describing the result of the change from the material cause, through the efficient cause into the object that it is
• the final cause (why? What is its purpose?)

  -the final cause is the most important cause for Aristotle because it describes the telos or purpose, why this object is here

  -the silver ring could have an ornamental purpose, or to show the commitment of two individuals if it was an engagement ring
• issue with the material cause

  -the material cause is obvious. In order to exist and be observed, all things must be made of physical matter. This is a useful basis for our knowledge

  --> BUT there isn't a material cause of a colour or of a concept such as beauty, and Plato argues true knowledge comes from the non-physical World of the Forms. We recognise the Form of Beauty in physical things
• issue with the efficient cause


  -the efficient cause explains the process of change (motus) from potentiality to actuality. For example, a lump of metal has potential to be a piece of jewellery but needs the silversmith to act on it to turn it into a ring

  --> BUT David Hume argues that we may be able to observe two processes that we call cause and effect, but this does not necessarily mean that the effect was a result of the cause, simply that both are observed
• issues with the formal cause

  -helps us to understand what gives something its shape & characteristics e.g. a bird that clucks may help us identify a chicken. If the chicken died, the form has changed (even if matter is the same) because it no longer clucks. For Aristotle, the form of an object is its soul

  --> BUT how do we know which characteristics are essential to an object to make it what it is? In a car, is the formal cause the engine, petrol etc. , or a combination of factors? Not everyone agrees the soul is the formal cause e.g. what makes me 'me' could be physical processes
• issues with the final cause

  -the final cause explains why everything has a purpose (telos). It is the most important cause because it answers questions about why the world or objects are as they are

  --> BUT purpose does not have to be intrinsic, as purpose is given to the object by its creator. Also, purpose is a human construct. Some things have many purposes or purposes change, and some things don't have a purpose at all
• issues with purpose

  -if an object fulfils its purpose, it is good. Goodness is not found in another world, like Plato's Form of the Good, but is intrinsic to the object itself

  --> BUT goodness may not be linked to purpose e.g. if a knife cuts my finger instead of the bread, it cuts well but is it really a good knife?
• issues with empiricism 


  -the basis of Aristotle's empirical theory is applicable to life and scientific enquiry because we rely on senses, observation and experience

  --> BUT Plato would argue that senses can deceive and this physical world is a poor imitation of the World of the Forms. We should use reason to know what is real
• motus

  Greek word meaning constant change, observed in the world.
• empiricism

  All knowledge and truth are derived from the senses, experiences and observation.
• rationalism

  Human reason is the source of all knowledge and truth.
• What is the purpose of Plato's analogy of the cave?

  -Plato uses analogy of the cave to explain that most of us don't understand reality because we rely on our senses

  -Plato explains it's more important to rely on reason, which is called rationalism

  -cave also explains Plato's theory of the Forms

  --> prisoners are chained, unable to move heads, facing a blank wall inside a dark cave. Behind them is a fire which throws shadows on the wall as people walk past it carrying objects. Prisoners think shadows are real

  --> prisoners are trapped in this lesser world, using only their senses. However, what the prisoners think is real are only shadows of real objects. The prisoners are being deceived by their senses

  --> 1 prisoner is released & forced on difficult journey out of cave, past the fire & into sunlight. Only when his eyes have adjusted to this new world, & light of sun, does he begin to see truth of the real world outside cave
• What is the purpose of Plato's analogy of the cave? continued

  --> when released prisoner sees world outside cave, he realises how much better it is. He can now see 3D shapes in colour, illuminated by sun, rather than flat, grey shadows of objects

  --> just as the world outside the cave is superior to being inside the cave, Plato is suggesting that using reason is superior to & more reliable than using the senses

  --> if released prisoner returns to the cave, he will not be able to see well in the semi-darkness any more. The prisoners would ridicule him & threaten to kill anyone who tries to release them

  --> some commentators think this could be a reference to Socrates, who was executed because he corrupted the minds of the youth in Athens by encouraging them to question and use rational thought. It also shows how entrenched our thinking can be and how reluctant we can be to use reason instead of relying on the senses
• analogy of the cave: meanings

  -the prisoners: ordinary people in our world

  -the cave: the empirical world that we see and hear around us

  -the chains: the senses that restrict the way we experience things

  -the shadows: our every day sense experience

  -the escapee: the philosopher who is able to access knowledge

  -the difficult ascent: an illustration that the road to philosophical knowledge is hard

  -the outside world: the real world, the world of forms

  -the sun: the highest of all the forms, the form of the good, which illuminates other forms and allows the forms to be known through reason

  -return to the cave: the philosopher, once enlightened feels it is his duty to free and educate the others

  -difficulty in adjusting to the darkness: once a philosopher knows the truth, it is difficult to experience things as the ordinary person does.

  -persecution given by the other prisoners: the philosopher will be ridiculed and threatened
• the analogy of the cave is not useful today strengths

  -analogy of the cave shows our senses deceive us, e.g., when a straight pencil is put in a glass of water, it looks bent even though it isn't

  -this is like the prisoners in the cave - what we experience/observe is only partial reality

  -shadows seen by prisoners are inferior to real world outside cave

  -when released prisoner struggles out of cave, he sees things as they really are

  -this shows true reality is only accessible by philosophers who use reason & aren't deceived by their senses

  --> BUT prisoners in cave rely on their senses & can see the shadows created by the fire, but Plato says this is wrong. On the contrary, relying on our senses is important. We use our 5 senses to work out what the world is like & to survive, e.g., if I see blood & feel pain, I realise that I've cut my finger & need to do something to stop it getting infected
• the analogy of the cave is not useful today strengths continued

  -senses can trap us, like chained prisoners who didn't want to listen to insights of returned prisoner

  -we can be close-minded & not want to consider other views or ways of thinking

  -it's better to use reason and to be open to new ideas

  --> BUT not everyone can be philosophers-Plato has an elitist view in analogy of the cave because he wants philosophers to rule. But we also need practical problem-solving & use of observations to make advances, not just thinking about the problems

  -relying on reason is like becoming a philosopher-the journey is difficult, like journey out of cave for released prisoner, but it is worth it

  --> BUT analogy of cave is too abstract when Plato relates it to the World of the Forms. Modern people don't want to think about another world, they place more importance on the world we experience here & now through senses
• particular or phenomena

  The changing (mutable) things we witness in the world of the senses, for example, the rose in my garden.
• immutable

  unchanging
• Form

  Plato's description of a perfect, unchanging concept or ideal in the World of the Forms, e.g. Form of the Good.
• anamnesis

  The soul remembering the Forms.
• Plato's theory of the Forms

  -Plato's explanation about why things in this world change & what is real

  -he argues there are 2 worlds: World of Appearances & World of the Forms

  -World of Appearances is our world, where things appear to be real but aren't permanent & change/decay & eventually die

  -material world we experience is like the cave in the analogy of the cave as it gives the illusion of being real but is only a poor imitation of reality

  -senses restrict us, like the prisoners' chains in the cave and we rely on what we can see, hear & touch

  -e.g. think of a beautiful flower

  --> Plato would argue the flower is a particular or phenomena that will change and become less/more beautiful over time. Plato argues that it is because our opinions are based on the senses, which are unreliable

  --> why do we disagree about what is beautiful? Plato argues that it is because our opinions are based on the senses, which are unreliable
• Plato's theory of the Form continued

  -World of the Forms contains immutable, perfect & eternal Forms or ideals

  -for Plato, this is the real world as reality doesn't change, it remains constant

  -World of the Forms can be understood through reason rather than through the senses

  -like the world outside the cave, World of the Forms is superior to World of Appearances

  -for example, instead of the shadows in the cave, grey & 2D, the released prisoner sees the colours of the real world & understands truth

  -this is like the philosopher whose mind is enlightened by the Form of the Good & who can now understand reality

  -e.g. why are a kind person and a pen that writes well both considered to be good?

  --> for Plato, using reason, we work out that these particulars participate in the Form of the Good, the ideal concept of goodness in the World of the Forms
• hierarchy of the Forms

  -1) world of Forms: Form of the Good

  --> participates in every Form & once understood through reason, enables us to understand other Forms

  -2) Form of Justice, Beauty & Equals

  -3) Abstract ideas e.g. bed, tree, horse

  -4) mathematical reasoning

  -5) world of appearances: material objects & opinions based on senses
• the theory of the Forms makes no sense strengths

  -observe everything in WoA is changing (nothing permanent/perfect)

  -makes sense there's a world where things are eternal, perfect & immutable

  --> BUT change better than immutability. Change important part of world (without change couldn't mature)

  -WoF is real world

  -better than life inside cave (WoA poor copy)

  --> BUT material world all we can know & have evidence of. Senses important to help us learn & survive

  -can be deceived by senses, so better to use reason

  --> BUT using reason difficult (may disagree). Better to rely on senses (verifiable evidence)

  -WoF contains unchanging Forms

  -recognise beauty in things as they participate in F of Beauty to some extent

  -may disagree on what is beautiful as we form opinions based on experiences rather than reason

  --> BUT disagreements abt what true goodness is. Concepts like beauty can't be separated from beautiful things
• Ancient Greeks

  -Greeks had begun to speculate very early on such metaphysical questions as the origin & nature of the universe

  --> evidenced by poems of Homer (but Homer relied on mythology to provide answers)

  -others would discard religious mythology as a means to answer these questions & develop a secular methodology based on observation, logic, & semantics

  --> w/ this development came the birth of philosophy
• birth of philosophy

  -philosophy originated in the Greek city states along the coast of Asia Minor around 600 BC

  --> as they weren't as bound by tradition as city-states on mainland Greece

  --> were also constantly in touch with the ancient science & speculation of the Middle East

  --> more open to intellectual innovation & speculation than counterparts on the mainland
• Thales of Miletus

  -born around 625 BC

  -became a well-known astronomer & correctly predicted a solar eclipse

  -asserted universe could be known by men

  -rejected theological & mythological interpretations of the universe & instead sought rational explanations

  -opened door for a whole new series of questions once the age-old obstacle of relying on gods for all answers had been overcome

  -questions such as: what is man & what is the best society for man?, what is truth & how can one recognise it?, what is virtue & how can one acquire it?
• Socrates

  -employed intellectual methodology that sophists had created to address questions that they had either neglected or ignored

  -469-399 BC

  -born into middle class family & began adult life as a stone mason

  --> soon gave this up to devote life to finding out what was the right way to conduct one’s life
• Socrates-the power of reason

  -wanted to subject all human beliefs & behaviour to light of reason

  --> thereby remove ethics from the realm of authority, tradition, dogma, superstition, & myth

  -believed reason only proper guide to problem of human existence

  --> also question of good & evil

  -believed knowledge was innate in human mind

  --> to extract it out into the conscious, he developed a question-&-answer method

  -would begin debates w/ students w/ searching questions into traditional assumptions that everyone took for granted & then proceed to show these assumptions were rooted more in custom & prejudice than they were in logic

  -would then lead students (w/ more questions) into developing more precise definitions of such concepts as piety, justice, good, & evil
• attitudes towards Socrates

  -most in Athens dismissed Socrates as an eccentric sophist

  --> but his students developed a fanatical loyalty to him

  -political leaders, whose ability & judgement he continually questioned, hated him

  -it was this conflict that ultimately led to his death
• death of Socrates

  -after war was over, some enemies brought Socrates to trial on charges of 'corrupting the youth of Athens'

  -Socrates denied charges but refused to grovel & beg forgiveness

  --> instead he boldly spelled out what he stood for

  -was found guilty & ordered to kill himself by drinking hemlock

  -if he had tried to appease jurors, he likely would have received a lighter sentence

  --> but he refused to alter his principles, even under the threat of death
• Plato

  -in 387 BC, Plato founded the Academy in Athens

  --> intended to be a training ground for young men from all over Greece, where they would learn the Socratic Method

  -Plato had more ambitious goals than Socrates’ moral regeneration of the individual

  --> also wanted to arrange political life according to rational rules
• Plato summary

  -Plato employed reason & aspired to study & arrange human life according to universally valid standards

  --> maintained such standards did exist

  -his writings also included a religious/mystical side

  --> he appears at times to be a mystic seeking escape from this world to a higher reality
• Aristotle

  -born 384 BC

  -studied in Plato’s Academy for 20 years

  --> left to become tutor to Alexander the Great

  -returned after Alexander became ruler and founded Lyceum

  -had a large range of interests, and an extraordinary intellect

  --> leading expert of his time in all subjects except mathematics

  -wrote large number of books on various topics
• Raphael's 'The School of Athens'

  -painted between 1509-11

  -Plato points to the sky, showing his rationalism and belief in the Forms

  -Aristotle points to the ground, showing his reliance on the senses (empiricism)

  
• Aristotle's explanation for change

  -Aristotle understood the universe, like many ancient Greeks, to be eternal (having no beginning or end)

  -Aristotle had a geocentric view of the universe, with a series of concentric circles, with the planets & sun rotating around the earth

  -like the continuous rotations of the planets, things within the world also exhibit continuous motus, changing from actuality to potentiality & back to actuality

  --> this movement results in change because things are being drawn towards the final cause