Approaches in Psychology

• Psychology


  The science of the mind and behaviour
• Introspection


  A form of self-examination where trained subjects attempt to record their thoughts and break down their responses and reactions
• Psychology emerged as a separate discipline during the mid-1800s
• Wundt


  • He was the first person to call himself a psychologist, believing that all aspects of nature, including the human mind, could be studied scientifically
  • His approach paved the way to the acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right, and experimental psychology as the preferred method of studying human behaviour
  • He studied those aspects of behaviour that could only be strictly controlled under experimental conditions (such as perception and reaction times)
• Structuralism


  Wundt's approach of examining the structure of the mind by breaking down behaviours such as perception into their basic elements
• Behaviourism


  An approach that analyses behaviour as being determined by the environment, with no free will, and that there is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and other animals
• Behaviourist approach


  • Psychology should be seen as a science, with theories needing to be supported by evidence obtained through objective and controlled observation and measurement of behaviour
  • Psychologists should study observable behaviour, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion
• Classical conditioning


  1. Unconditioned stimulus

  2. Neutral stimulus

  3. Conditioned stimulus

  4. Conditioned response
• Classical conditioning


  • Pavlov's research with dogs and the sound of a bell
• Classical conditioning can lead to the formation of phobias
• Systematic desensitization


  A therapy based on classical conditioning that works by eliminating the learned anxious response and replacing it with relaxation
• Different species have different capabilities to learn through classical conditioning due to the concept of preparedness
• Operant conditioning


  An approach that focuses on the consequences of behaviour, with reinforcement and punishment influencing whether a behaviour is more or less likely to be repeated
• Positive reinforcement


  Increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated by producing a pleasant consequence
• Negative reinforcement


  Increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated by removing an unpleasant stimulus
• Punishment


  Decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated by providing an unpleasant consequence
• Positive reinforcement


  Increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated. This is because it produces a consequence that is pleasant.
• Negative reinforcement


  Increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated. Negative reinforcement works by removing something unpleasant.
• Punishment


  Decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. It is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
• People get negative reinforcement and punishment mixed up all the time. Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of something happening again because it removes the unpleasant stimuli, whereas punishment makes it less likely to happen again.
• Continuous and variable ratio reinforcement

  Research and find out which one is most likely to lead to a very high response rate and why. Also, give an example where variable ratios are used effectively.
• Skinner used his Skinner box to manipulate the consequences of the behaviour (the independent variable) to see the effect on the rat or pigeon's behaviour (the dependent variable).
• By doing so, Skinner was able to establish a cause and effect relationship between the consequences of a behaviour (positive or negative) and the likelihood of it being repeated.
• Strengths of Operant Conditioning

  • Empirical support - Skinner used the experimental method
  • Real-life application - principles of OC used in token economy programmes in prisons and psychiatric wards
• Weaknesses of Operant Conditioning

  • Free will in humans compared to animals - critics argue Skinner's studies on rats and pigeons tell us little about human behaviour
  • Mechanistic view of behaviour
• Social Learning Theory


  We learn by observing and imitating others, especially if others appear to be rewarded for their behaviour (vicarious reinforcement)
• Modelling


  • Individuals that perform the behaviour are referred to as models. They can be live models (e.g. parents) or symbolic (e.g. media characters)
• Imitation


  • Copying of behaviour by others. Key determinants are characteristics of the model, the observer's perceived ability, and the observed consequences
• Identification


  • The extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels similar to them. Children are more likely to identify with same-sex models.
• Vicarious Reinforcement


  • Learning takes place through observing the consequences of a model's actions in terms of reward and punishment.
• Mediational processes


  • Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation - the cognitive processes involved before imitation occurs.
• A weakness of Social Learning Theory is that it overlooks alternative explanations for behaviour, such as biological factors.
• The cognitive approach focuses on studying internal mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response.
• Schema


  A 'package' of ideas or information developed through experience, which allows cognitive shortcuts but can also lead to biases.
• As experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified.
• Research evidence supports schema theory, showing how schemas influence perception and memory.
• Strengths of the Cognitive Approach

  • Useful applications, such as in the treatment of mental disorders
  • Use of scientific and objective methods
• The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed the study of the mind to establish a credible scientific basis.
• Cognitive approach


  Has useful applications, such as explaining dysfunctional behaviour and leading to successful treatment of illnesses like depression and OCD using cognitive-based therapy
• Cognitive approach


  • Uses scientific and objective methods, such as highly controlled and rigorous lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data
  • The emergence of neuroscience has enabled the study of the mind to establish a credible scientific basis