part 2

• There is a higher concentration of rainfall surrounding the equator (low latitudes) due to the direct heating from the sun, increasing the rate and amount of evaporation occurring.
• In higher latitudes like the north and south poles rainfall is low due to the lack of evaporation as there is less direct heating as the suns energy is more spread out over a larger area.
• Costal areas experience higher rainfall than inland areas as the surrounding ocean water is evaporated.
• Inland areas that are a large distance away from any bodies of water receive low levels of rainfall as there is no water to be evaporated.
• Mountain barriers affect rainfall as there are two sides of a mountain, the windward side and the leeward side. The windward side is the side facing the sea and as air rises over mountains, it cools, causing moisture to condense and fall as rain. Regions on leeward slopes experience low rainfall because as air rises, most of the precipitation occurs on the windward side, resulting in the leeward side being subject to the ‘rain shadow effect’.
• Areas that are closer to the equator are warmer than regions near the two poles.

  Equatorial regions receive more direct sunlight as the sun's rays are more direct and spread over smaller areas. Meanwhile the poles are colder as the sun's rays are less direct and are spread over a wider area. 
• Areas of higher altitude have lower temperatures because the average temperature decreases by 6.5 degrees every 1 km increase in altitude.
• The atmosphere is the most dense and able to retain heat energy at sea level, becoming thinner with increasing altitude therefore not being able to retain heat energy, making the higher altitudes colder. 
• Areas with low albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight) absorb more sunlight and tend to have higher temperatures. Areas with high albedo reflect more sunlight and have lower temperatures. This is because lighter colours have higher albedo while dark colours have lower albedo and ice and snow are extremely light colours.
• The heat budget is a simple idea: it's about the balance between two kinds of heat. One is the heat from the sun, which is short-wave radiation. The other is the heat that Earth gives off into space, which is long-wave terrestrial radiation. If Earth gets more heat from the sun than it gives off, it gets warmer. If it gives off more heat than it gets, it cools down.
• 30% of solar energy that reaches the top of the atmosphere is reflected back into space by clouds (20%), atmospheric particles (6%), or bright surfaces like snow (4%).
• • 70% of solar energy is absorbed by the Earth's systems. Within this:
  • 19% is absorbed in the atmosphere and clouds.
  • 51% passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by land and oceans.
• This absorbed solar energy (70%) is eventually re-radiated back into the atmosphere as terrestrial long-wave radiation.

  • 23% is carried as latent heat in water vapor.
  • 7% is transmitted into the atmosphere through conduction and rising air.
  • 64% eventually leaves Earth through the atmosphere.
  • 6% is radiated directly back into space without any heating of the atmosphere.
• The greenhouse effect is crucial for retaining heat and maintaining the Earth's temperature at a level suitable for life. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the surface temperature would be over 30°C cooler than it is today. It plays a vital role in moderating the temperature of the atmosphere, ensuring conditions on Earth remain habitable.
• An essential element of the heat budget is the greenhouse effect (GHE). This is a process where greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor (H2O), absorb some of the terrestrial radiation released by the Earth's surface. These gases then re-radiate the heat in all directions, including back towards the ground. This process accounts for 15% of the terrestrial radiation absorbed.
• All the sunlight Earth receives must eventually be sent back into space, or else the planet would keep getting hotter and hotter. Any changes in the balance between the sunlight coming in and the heat leaving have big effects on Earth's climate.

  Between 2009 and 2019, the rate at which heat is building up globally increased from 0.6 watts per square meter to above 1.0 watt per square meter. This rise coincided with increases in global surface temperature and changes in rainfall patterns.
• The Hydrological Cycle is this continuous movement of water as a liquid, gas and solid throughout the land, oceans and atmosphere.
• Evaporation is when water changes from liquid to gas, usually due to sunlight heating bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and oceans. Most evaporation happens from the oceans, leaving behind salt, minerals, and metals.
• Condensation is the opposite process, where water vapor turns back into liquid. This happens when warm air rises, cools down, and forms tiny water droplets. During this, the heat released from evaporation gets back into the atmosphere. Water molecules combine with dust, salt, and smoke to form clouds.
• Precipitation occurs when these water droplets in clouds become heavy and fall back to Earth as rain, snow, or hail. When there's too much water in the air, gravity pulls it down.
• Runoff is what happens when water doesn't soak into the ground but flows over the land's surface instead. This usually happens after precipitation, like rain or melting snow. Some precipitation, like snow, accumulates on the ground and later melts, adding to runoff.
• Infiltration is when water soaks into the ground during precipitation. Some of this water collects underground in layers of rock, sand, or gravel called aquifers. Eventually, groundwater flows into rivers, creeks, and lakes. Plant roots also absorb water from the ground.
• Transpiration is when plants release water vapor through tiny pores in their leaves. It's like plants sweating to cool down, and it adds moisture to the air.
• The processes in the hydrological cycle (HC) control various weather elements like rainfall, humidity, cloud cover, and temperature. When the HC operates smoothly, it establishes long-term weather patterns that influence soil, vegetation, plants, and human settlements, all of which adapt to these conditions over time.
• Rising temperatures can intensify certain HC processes, like evapotranspiration, which can greatly affect climate. As temperatures increase, more heat leads to more evaporation, contributing to changes in weather patterns and overall climate conditions.
• The Carbon Cycle is the continuous movement of carbon compounds between land, oceans, atmosphere and living organisms in its various states. 
• Processes that remove and store CO2 from the atmosphere:

  - Carbon sequestration by plants during photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide is absorbed and converted into organic compounds.

  - Carbon storage in soils, where organic matter accumulates and stores carbon over time.

  - Carbon burial in sedimentary rocks, where carbon is stored for millions of years.
• Processes that release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere:

  - Respiration by plants, animals, and microbes, where organic matter is broken down, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.

  - Decomposition of organic matter in soil, where carbon stored in organic compounds is broken down and released as carbon dioxide.

  - Combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, where carbon stored in organic matter is burned, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

  Most of Earth's carbon is stored in rocks, with smaller amounts in oceans, the atmosphere, plants, and soil.
• CO2 is taken out of the atmosphere by natural processes like precipitation and photosynthesis by phytoplankton in the oceans.
• When carbon enters the surface of the water, cold sinking water carries it down to the bottom layers of the ocean.
• Over time, carbon atoms accumulate on the ocean floor and combine with shells and sediments to form limestone rock, which can store carbon for millions of years.
• Warm oceans bring carbon back toward the surface, where through evaporation, carbon is released back into the atmosphere.
• Green plants take CO2 out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
• The carbon compounds in plants are oxidized to fuel all life processes. When plants and animals respire, they exhale CO2, releasing it back into the atmosphere.
• When plant materials decay or are burned, they also produce CO2, which is released back into the atmosphere.
• Controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere plays a critical role in regulating Earth's climate.

  Increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere enhance the greenhouse effect (GHE) and lead to unnatural warming of the planet.
• Since the Industrial Revolution, there has been a 48% increase in CO2 levels, resulting in a 1.1°C warming of global surface temperatures.
• Higher temperatures cause further effects, such as changes in rainfall patterns and an increase in the frequency and intensity of natural hazard events.
• In January of 2024 studies have measured 423 parts per million of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• There has been a 50% increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (1750).