Operant Conditioning

• Positive Reinforcement

  Something good is given because of the behaviour, so the behaviour is repeated.
• Negative Reinforcement

  Something bad is taken away because of the behaviour and so the behaviour is repeated.
• Punishment

  Something bad is given and the behaviour is stopped.
• Primary Reinforcement

  The reward is a basic need, like food or warmth.
• Secondary Reinforcement

  The reward is something that can buy or get a basic need, like money or tokens.
• Schedules of reinforcement

  Continuous Reinforcement + Partial Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement

  In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs.

  This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behaviour and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
• Partial Reinforcement

  In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction.

  There are four schedules of partial reinforcement: Ratio-fixed schedules, Ratio- Variable schedules, Interval-fixed schedules and Interval-variable schedules
• Ratio-fixed schedules

  Are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times.
• Ratio- Variable schedules

  Occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. In a lab setting, this might involve delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and a third pellet after two bar presses.
• Interval-fixed schedules

  Are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30 second interval has elapsed.
• Interval-variable schedule

  Occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response. An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a one minute interval, another pellet for the first response following a five minute interval, and a third food pellet for the first response following a three minute interval.
• Behaviour modification/shaping

  Shaping, or behaviour-shaping, is a variant of operant conditioning. Instead of waiting for a subject to exhibit a desired behaviour, any behaviour leading to the target behaviour is rewarded.

  For example, Skinner (1904-1990) discovered that, in order to train a rat to push a lever, any movement in the direction of the lever had to be rewarded, until finally, the rat was trained to push a lever.

  Once the target behaviour is reached, however, no other behaviour is rewarded. In other words, the subject behaviour is shaped, or moulded, into the desired form