forensics

• bottom-up approach


  Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender.
• top-down approach


  Profilers start with a pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene.
• Interpersonal coherence


  An assumption of the bottom-up approach/investigative psychology. It assumes that the crime scene behaviour is consistent in home behaviours.
• Name two types geographical offender

  Marauder + commuter
• Marauder


  Offends close to home
• Commuter


  Offends far from home
• Eval of geographical profiling


  Not sufficient alone, can lead to miscarriages of justice such as with Colin stagg
• Name the two types of offender

  Organised + disorganised
• Characteristics of an organised offender

  Planned, leave little evidence, high IQ, usually married
• Characteristics of a disorganised offender

  unplanned offences, impulsive, likely to leave evidence, low IQ, failed relationships
• Eval on profiling


  Data is based on a study in the USA of 36 sexually motivated murderers behaviour - small sample, low validity
• What is incapacitation


  Protecting the public by making the offender unable to offend
• Define retribution


  punishment inflicted on someone as revenge for a criminal act
• Define rehabilitation


  Punishment used to reform psychological effects to prevent reoffending
• How do token economies work

  an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
• CBT application


  Keen: found that 8, 2 hour CBT sessions increase awareness of anger and self control
• Evaluation of token economies

  Strengths

  - research support (keen)

  - easy to implement

  
  

  Weaknesses

  - can be dehumanizing

  - often doesn't work outside the institution
• Evaluation of anger management/CBT

  Strengths

  - long lasting benefits

  - effective (keen study)

  
  

  Limitations

  - expensive

  - effectiveness depends on individual factors
• Examples of Restorative Justice


  Victim and offender recovery, restitution (payment to victim), therapy
• Evaluation of restorative justice

  Strengths

  - supports survivors

  -decreases offending

  
  

  Weaknesses

  - offenders may abuse system
• What are the biological explanations for offending?

  lombroso- atavistic form

  Genetic - twin and adoption studies

  Neural - diathesis stress, APD
• What is an atavistic form?

  Theory that criminals lack evolutionary development (Lombroso) based on over 4000 participants - 40% of which had atavistic features.
• Types of features of offenders

  General - strong jaw, sloped brows, asymmetrical face

  Murderer - blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears

  Sex offender - glittering eyes, swollen and fleshy lips
• Evaluation of lombroso


  - didn't use a control group in his study

  - racial bias in features - accused of scientific racism

  - supports eugenics
• Twin studies


  Hypothesis - if one twin offends the other one is more likely to.

  Aim - to show criminals are genetically predisposed.

  Concordance rate - MZ: 35%, DZ: 13%
• Evaluation of twin studies

  Strength

  - supports diathesis stress

  
  

  Weakness

  - equal environments aren't always guaranteed.
• Adoption studies


  Children with a biological mother that is a criminals have a 50% risk of offending themselves

  With a non criminal biological mother, this risk lowers to 5%
• Why does APD lead to offending


  Anti social personality disorder causes 11% less activity in the prefrontal cortex that regulate emotions. Being unable to regulate emotions can lead to anger mismanagement and ultimately crime.
• Evaluation of APD


  Strengths

  - supporting evidence

  - case studies: Bundy and Dahmer

  
  

  Weakness

  - APD is complex
• List 4 Psychological explanations for offending

  Cognitive, differential association, Eysenck's theory, psychodynamic theory.
• What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning?

  1. Preconventional - gain rewards without punishment

  2. Conventional - social order

  3. Postconventional - individual rights
• Evaluation of moral reasoning

  Strengths:

  - Evidence - Palmer and Hollin found that convicted offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than non-offenders

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  - dependant on the offender/offence
• Elements of Cognitive distortion

  Hostile attribution bias - judging situations as threats (eg facial expressions

  Minimalisation - downplaying significance of crime (54% of rapists denied offence)
• Evaluation of Cognitive distortion

  Strengths

  - Application to therapy treatments

  
  

  Weaknesses

  - Dependant on offence/ offender
• What are the 3 layers of personality in Eysenck's theory ?

  Extroversion - low arousal

  Neuroticism - high reactivity

  Psychoticism - anti-social, aggression
• Evaluation of Eysenck's personality theory

  Strengths

  - supporting evidence - Bowlby 14/44 showed psychopathy

  
  

  Weaknesses

  - Ignores environmental factors

  - Ignores cultural factors
• What is differential association theory?

  An explanation for offending that suggests through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour
• Features of differential association theory

  Offending is learned - SLT

  Pro-crime attitudes

  Offending techniques
• Evaluation of differential association theory


  Strengths

  - shift of focus

  - wide reach

  
  

  Weakness

  - lacks scientific credibility
• What is the psychodynamic theory?

  When a child fails to identify with a same-sex parent during the phallic stage therefore resulting in an inadequate superego