External factors

• Centre for Longitudinal Studies

  Class differences in children's development and achievement appear very early in life. The Centre for Longitudinal Studies (2007) discovered that by the age of 3, children from disadvantaged backgrounds would be up to one year behind. Compared to those of privileged homes.
• Speech codes

  Basil Bernstein (1975) identifies differences between WC and MC language that influenced achievement. Restricted and Elaborated.
• Restricted speech code is typically used by the WC. Limited vocabulary, short, unfinished, grammatically simple sentences.
• Elaborated code is used by MC. Containing a wider vocabulary, based on longer, grammatically complex sentences. Speech is more varied and communicates abstract ideas.
• Critics argue that Bernstein is a cultural deprivation theorist as he describes WC speech as inadequate. However, he recognises that the school, not just the home influences children's achievement.

  He argues that WC pupils fail as the schools fail to teach them how to use the elaborate code.
• What is a subculture?

  A subculture is a group whose attitudes and values differ from those of the mainstream culture.
• Barry Sugarman (1970)


  Takes the view that WC subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement. Fatalism, Collectivism, Immediate gratification, Present time orientation.
• • Fatalism: a belief in fate, that 'whatever will be, will be' and there is nothing you can do to change your status.
  • Collectivisim: valuing being a part of a group more than succeeding as an individual.
  • Immediate gratification: seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices to get rewards in the future.
  • Present time orientation: seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long-term goals.
• Language is an essential part of education, the way that parents communicate with their children affects their cognitive (intellectual) development. Also their ability to benefit from school.
• Hubbs Tait et al (2002)

  Found that where parents use language that challenges their children to evaluate their own understanding; the cognitive performance improves.
• Feinstein

  He found that educated parents are more likely to use praise/ this encourages their children to develop a sense of their competence.
• Carl Bereiter and Siegfried Engelmann (1966)

  Claim that the language used in lower-class homes is deficient. As a result, their children fail to develop the necessary language skills. Growing up incapable of abstract thinking; they are unable to take advantage of the opportunities that the schools offers.
• Douglas (1964)

  Found that WC parents placed less value on education, less ambitious for their children, providing less encouragement, taking less interest in their education. This resulted in children having lower levels of motivation and achievement.
• Leon Feinstein (2008) parents education

  He argues that parents' education is the most important factor affecting children's achievement and, since MC parents tend to be better educated, providing their children an advantage in how to socialise them: Parenting style, parents educational behaviours, use of income, class income and parental education.
• Parenting style

  Educated parents’ parenting style emphasizes consistent discipline and high expectations of their children, supporting achievement by encouraging active learning and exploration.
• Parents educational behaviors

  Educated parents are more aware of what is needed to assist their children’s educational progress. As a result, they engage in behavior such as reading to their children, teaching them letters, numbers, songs, poems, nursery rhymes, painting and drawing, helping with homework, and being actively involved in their schooling.
• Use of income

  Better-educated parents not only tend to have higher incomes. They also spend their income in ways that promote their children’s educational success
• Bernstein and Young (1967)

  Found MC mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books, and activities that stimulate intellectually development. Compared to WC homes that will lack these skills.
• Educated parents also have better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development and a higher income with which to buy more nutritious food.
• Class income and parental education

  While better-paid, MC parents tend to be better educated than lower-paid, WC parents, Feinstein notes that parental education influences children’s achievement, regardless of class or income. Thus, better-educated parents tend to have successful children at school even within a given social class.
• Compensatory education

  Compensatory education programs aim to tackle the issue of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas. They intervene early in socialization to compensate children for the deprivation they experience at home.
• What is Operation Head start?

  Multi billion-dollar scheme of pre-school education in poorer areas was introduced in the 1960s. The aim was planned enrichment to develop skills and instill achievement motivation. It included parenting skills, setting up nursery classes, and home visits by educational psychologists.
• Nell Keddie (1973)

  Describes cultural deprivation as a 'myth' and sees it as a victim-blaming explanation. Dismissing the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background. She argues that WC children are culturally different. Not culturally deprived.
• Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams (1986)

  Argue that the issue is not the child’s language but the school’s attitude towards it.

  Teachers have a ‘speech hierarchy’: they label MC speech highest, WC speech, and black speech.
• Tessa Blackstone and Jo Mortimoree (1994)

  They argue that WC parents are less able to be involved in their children's education. Attending fewer parents' evenings as they work long or irregular hours. They may want to help their child's education, however, they lack the knowledge to do so.