Consider 2 ethical issues + 1 way of dealing with each (8)

• Valid consent

  • P: One ethical issue is whether valid consent was obtained from the students, especially as they are likely under 16 and vulnerable

  • E: the students’ smiling behaviour was rated during lessons without clear indication they were fully informed about the research purpose or their right to refuse participation. Vulnerable individuals require parental or guardian consent as per BPS guidelines

  • E: without valid consent, the students may not have understood or agreed to take part, which breaches ethical standards and could cause distress or feelings of coercion. This also raises concerns about the legitimacy of using their data

  • L: to address this, researchers should seek parental consent and explain the study clearly to students in age-appropriate language, ensuring they know participation is voluntary and they can withdraw at any time
• Confidentiality

  • P: another ethical issue is protecting the student’s confidentiality and privacy

  • E: the teaching assistant rated students during lessons, which might risk identifying individual students when grades and behaviours are linked and published. This could affect students‘ reputations or relationships with the school

  • E: breaching confidentiality can harm students’ status and privacy, violating ethical standards and potentially causing emotional distress. It may also discourage future participation in research

  • L: researchers should anonymise data by removing names and any identifying details before analysis and publication to maintain confidentiality and protect participants‘ privacy