Civil war

• Pompey makes a massive tactical mistake by abandoning Rome with the optimates and fleeing to Dyrrachium (Albania)
• Leaving Rome free for Julius Caesar to win support


  All anti-Caesar left with Pompey and access to the treasury (so he has access to lots of money to pay soldiers)
• Caesar wins a major battle (Pharsalus) in 48BC which leads Pompey to flee to Egypt
• Ptolemy’s forces behead Pompey on the shore as a show of support to Caesar. Caesar is upset by this – despite the war, he had a great deal of respect for Pompey and were friends before
• Republican forces continue to fight with little success – Cato kills himself after the battle of Thapsus in 46BC
• Caesar adopted the title ‘dictator’


  48BC
• Sulla's dictatorship


  Introduced proscriptions – legal murders of people who were deemed enemies of the state – their names were published on lists in Rome. And he was very cruel
• Julius Caesar's approach


  Advocated clemency / mercy. Defeated opponents could come over to his side and be part of Rome moving forward
• Caesar's title 'Dictator'


  • Historically Republican
  • Legally ordained
  • Constitutionally recognised
  • Allows him protection and superiority against tribunician veto
• Changing the title to ‘dictator in perpetuo’ (dictator forever) in February 44BC seemed to suggest that his position had changed from an emergency leader to a tyrant [ramifications of ‘king’]
• Caesar was trying to bring stability to Rome as well as peace from 48-44BC
• Caesar's building programme


  1. Increased the numbers of the Senate to 900

  2. Increased the number of magistracies available on the cursus honorum

  3. Introduced a wide-scale building policy including flood protection, road improvements, draining of local marshes, improving the harbour at Ostia, new basilica in the forum, and a new forum, the Forum Julium
• Caesar's building programme created high employment and improved the appearance of Rome
• In the provinces


  Caesar created colonies which gave settlement to those who needed it and helped Romanisation which led to peace and improved trade
• Julius Caesar dominated the political landscape: pontifex maximus since 63, augur from 47, consul every year (except 47), sole consul in 45
• The new senators were his own supporters – the popular assemblies were dominated by his patronage and widespread popularity
• His building programme could be seen as a statement of his own power and achievements
• Scullard suggests that the turning point was 46BC – Cato’s suicide rather than live under Caesar removed the last powerful dissenting voice. This leads to an undercurrent of discontent/disapproval amongst the senatorial class
• Caesar had previously supported popular policies such as measures brought in by Pompey and Crassus in 70BC consulship, throwing lavish games as aedile in 65BC, and promotion of Rullius’ land reform in 63BC
• In 59BC as consul, Caesar implemented land for Pompey’s veterans and rebate for
• Caesar’s Popular Reforms plan
• Popular policies supported by Caesar

  • Measures brought in by Pompey and Crassus in 70BC consulship
  • Lavish games as aedile in 65BC
  • Promotion of Rullius’ land reform in 63BC
• In 59BC as consul, Caesar implemented various reforms including land for Pompey’s veterans and rebate for Crassus’ tax farmers, reforms to governor accounting in provinces, support of Clodius with reintroduction of trade guilds and free corn dole
• As dictator, Caesar's building programme created jobs and established homes for 80,000 Romans in the provinces
• In Roman politics, there was a school of thought that populist politics was frowned upon, led by the optimates
• Cicero believed that ordinary people should not be able to influence the government
• In the 1st century BC, massive social change occurred due to the expansion of the Roman empire, which the optimates failed to adapt to
• Caesar recognized the permanence of urban poor, power of veterans, and land reform
• The group of senators that killed Caesar believed they were freeing the Republic from the tyranny of Caesar’s dictatorship
• Three key strands to the assassination of Caesar

  • His hold on the key offices of state
  • His network of patronage
  • His decision to adopt the title ‘dictator in perpetuo’
• Mark Antony offered a crown to Caesar at the Lupercalia festival, which Caesar refused
• The conspirators were motivated by the triumph of ‘libertas’ over ‘dominatio’
• Key liberators in the assassination of Caesar

  • Gaius Cassius Longinus
  • Marcus Junius Brutus
• Lucius Junius Brutus, an ancestor of Marcus Junius Brutus, was one of the first consuls of Rome in 509BC
• Of the 20 known conspirators, 9 had fought with Pompey, 7 with Caesar, and 4 had been with Caesar in Gaul
• Brutus announced the death of Caesar to silence
• Cicero pointed out that restoring libertas didn’t automatically mean restoring the Republic