antarctica

• the Antarctic convergence


  curve continuously encircling Antarctica where cold northward flowing Antarctic waters meet relatively warmer waters of the sub-Antarctic
• non-governmental organization (NGO)


  non-profit group with common interest which is organised on a local, national or international level
• governance


  movement of political integration aimed at negotiating responses to problems that affect multiple states/regions
• moratorium


  stopping of activity for agreed time period
• Antarctic treaty


  AKA Antarctic treaty system (ATS)

  - regulates international relations with respect to Antarctica
• where is Antarctica?


  - southern hemisphere

  - in southern ocean and antarctic circle
• Size of Antarctica


  - 5th largest continent- stretches an area14 million km^2
• Antarctica's coastline


  most of coastline fringed by ice shelves
• antarctica - ice and land

  • 98%ice sheets (approx1 mile thick)
  • highest avg elevation of any continent
  • no / little vegetation -> mainly moss / lichen
• antarctica - ocean


  - southern ocean -> major carbon sink that's important for regulating climate

  - high nutrient ocean -> encourages phytoplankton

  - nutrient rich means algae blooms created for krill and phytoplankton to eat
• antarctica - climate


  - desert with little rain / snow

  - 2 seasons -> winter + summer

  - coldest iciest + driest place
• the Antarctic convergence (AC) - why doesn't warm water flow south?

  • AC approx 32-48km wide
  • northward flowing Antarctic sinks beneath sub-Antarctic waters due to Antarctic circumpolar current that blocks warmer water travelling south
• why is upwelling important for krill?

  - upwelling = nutrients carried to surface

  - so convergence zones suitable for growth of microorganisms like krill
• why does Antarctic circumpolar current (ACC) move eastwards?

  • driven by westerly winds, creating west wind drift
  • lesser current closer to antarctica flows in opposite direction (westwards) + known as east wind drift
• lowest temp recorded

  -89.2 degrees celsius at Vostok Station (1983)
• characteristics of Antarcticas climate

  • precipitationmuch higher by coast (McMurdo - total of200.9 mm/yr) and lower at south pole (Amundsen-Scott - total =0.8mm/yr)
  • precipitation much higher by coast (McMurdo - total of200.9 mm/yr) and lower at south pole (Amundsen-Scott - total =0.8mm/yr)
  • temperatures - colder temps when no sunlight, highest temp in South Pole at 0 degrees (january), lowest temp in vostok at -68 degrees (August)
• what are the threats to Antarctica?

  - climate change

  - fishing and whaling

  - mineral resources

  - tourism
• what are the issues with climate change in antarctica?

  - happening 5 times faster than the average rate

  - winter temps of surrounding waters thought to have risen as much as 10 degrees

  - in last 50 years, temps have increased by 3 degrees
• climate changes impacts on - ice melt and sea level rise


  • warmer sea + atmosphere temp melts ice sheets, causing ice bergs to calve into sea + sea level to rise
  • CO2 stored in ice caps is released - enhancing global warming
  • albedo effect -> lessened = more heat absorbed
  • 3 trillion tonnes of ice lost in last 25yrs
• how would sea level change if Antarctica melted?

  - if areas ofwest antarcticamelt, sea could rise 3 metres globally
• climate changes impacts - negative ecological impacts

  - animals + plants affected by temp changes

  - decline in abundance of antarctic krill

  - change in penguin distribution
• climate changes impacts on - Adelie Penguins

  - some populations have halved

  - climate change = big threat
• climate changes impacts - positive impacts

  - more access to resources

  - ice gain in N. Antarctica
• climate changes impacts - negative ocean acidification

  - CO2 entering ocean = carbonic acid = oceans are less alkaline

  - polar marine ecosystem is so low in carbonate ions that its corrosive to unprotected shells -> disrupts food web
• what are the issues with fishing + whaling?

  - whaling only occurs at a restricted level following banning of commercial whaling in antarctica

  - despite CCAMLR, illegal fishing still occurs
• the commission for the conservation of Antarctica Marine Living Resources

  (CCAMLR)- negotiated by ATS

  - established quotas + created fishing zones in southern ocean to help manage overfishing
• what are krill and why do they need protecting?

  - krill underpin food chain + so loss of them will impact most species

  - used as fish oil supplement + so in high demand- fish oil sector to rise to900 mill dollarsby 2026

  - krill fishing expected to increase due to fast growing fish farming sector (krill = fish food)

  - krill supply under pressure from climate change
• IGOs involved in governing threats from fishing and whaling

  - CCAMLR

  - ASOC
• how is CCAMLR involved?

  - established 1982

  - works alongside ASOC
• what is ASOC?


  • the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition
  • NGO made of other NGOs with an observer status for ATS
  • ensures protection of Antarctic land and marine env
• what are ASOC and CCAMLR concerned about?

  - concern about illegal fishing
• what is the IWC and what do they do?

  international whaling commission 1946

  • global body responsible for conservation of whales
  • provides management of whale sticks + whale industry
• what happened during the 1982 whaling moratorium?

  - banned all commercial whaling

  - Norway and Iceland still commercially whale as agreed by IWC

  - Russia federation objected the ban - still whale
• issues with the IWC moratorium

  - countries can object the regulations

  - countries can exploit loopholes -> Japan used whaling for 'scientific purposes' although this is widely doubted
• mineral deposits in Antarctica

  - coal

  - copper

  - silver

  - gold
• why is mineral extraction difficult?

  - expensive

  - remote

  - lack of light for 5 months

  - challenging working conditions

  - lack of infrastructure + water
• how is the presence of mineral resources a threat to antarctica?

  - increase in demands due to depletion of resources elsewhere

  - increase technology advances -> cost benefit analysis makes it achievable

  - climate change = easier to access resources
• what type of tourism is there?

  - seaborne tourism ->cruise transfer to smaller boats for landing

  - airborne tourism ->scenic flights over antarctica + landing on the continent

  - fly-cruises ->flights land on King George Island where visitors take a cruise boat
• what do tourists go + see?

  - glacial landscapes

  - wildlife

  - experience remoteness

  - historical sites (McMurdo sound with the huts from Shackleton's expedition)
• international association of Antarctic tour operations (IAATO) + the regulations

  - no large ships with more than 500 ppl allowed

  - when landing, boats of 20 with a qualified guide

  - tourists briefed on conde of behaviour + wildlife observation

  - tourists wear red jackets -> easily spot them

  - limits on visiting sites = visit every 3-4 days to allow recovery