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CHEM 153L
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Carbohydrates
Polyhydroxy aldehydes
or ketones or substances yielding them upon hydrolysis; major material in our diet serving as an
energy source
Monosaccharides
Not
decomposable
to simple sugars by
hydrolysis
All free monosaccharides are "
reducing
"
Classified by the number of
carbon
atoms
Monosaccharides
Triose: C3H6O3 - Glyceraldehyde
Tetrose: C4H8O4 - Erythrose
Pentose: C5H10O5 - Ribose
Hexose: C6H12O6 -
Glucose
,
Fructose
Heptose:
C7H14O7
- Notable in nature
Octose:
C8H16O8
- Rare
Arabinose
is found in complex plant polysaccharides (
gums
) and in coniferous tree wood
Glucose
is known as
grape sugar
and dextrose; found in grapes and blood
Fructose
is fruit
sugar
and the sweetest-tasting sugar
Galactose
, also called cerebrose, is found in cerebrosides primarily in
nerve cell sheaths
Disaccharides
Two
simple sugars linked by
glycosidic
bond
Examples:
Maltose
(glucose + glucose),
Lactose
(glucose + galactose), Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
Oligosaccharides
Contains two to
ten
simple sugars linked by
glycosidic
bonds
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates
with
nine
or more monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
Examples:
Starch
, Agar-agar, Gum-arabic, Dextrin,
Cellulose
Starch
is found in seeds, tubers, and roots; consists of amylose and
amylopectin
Dextrins
are partial hydrolytic products of
starch
used in various products
Glycogen
is the animal system's storage of
glycogen
in the liver and muscles
Cellulose
(
Cotton
) is the most abundant organic compound on earth; linear polymer with 𝛽(1 → 4) glycosidic bonds
Agar-agar
is a
jelly-like
substance from red algae; used in Asian cuisines and as a gelatin substitute
Gum-Arabic
is a dried water-soluble exudate from
Acacia senegal
; used in pharmaceutical preparations
General Test for Carbohydrates
1% solutions of
glucose
, sucrose, arabinose,
starch
, and cotton or filter paper suspension
Molisch
Test
Distinguishes
carbohydrates
from non-carbohydrates using 𝛼-naphthol in 95%
ethano
l
Anthrone
Test
Qualitative and quantitative estimation of
polysaccharides
and
monosaccharides
Iodine
Test for
Carbohydrates
Differentiates helical polysaccharides from non-helical; detects
starch
with a
bluish-black
color
Qualitative Tests for Sugars
5% solutions of
glucose
, fructose, arabinose, maltose,
galactose
, lactose, sucrose
Benedict’s
Test
Detects
reducing sugars
by forming colored
copper
(I) oxide; positive for all except sucrose
Barfoed’s
Test
Distinguishes between
monosaccharides
and
reducing
disaccharides
Seliwanoff’s Test
Used to distinguish
aldose
from
ketoses
; positive for fructose and sucrose
Orcinol
Test/
Bial’s
Test
Test for
distinguishing
pentoses from
hexoses
Positive for all except sucrose
oxide
Orcinol
Test/
Bial’s
Test
Test for
distinguishing
pentoses from hexoses;
positive
for arabinose
Osazone Test
Differentiates
reducing sugars
by forming characteristic
crystalline osazones
Mucic Acid Test
Detects presence of
galactose
and
lactose
through the formation of relatively insoluble mucic acid
Lipids
Biomolecules
with various functions; not
polymers
but small molecules associating through noncovalent forces
Types of Lipids
Fatty Acids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Fatty Acids
Long chain
carboxylic acids
; saturated or
unsaturated
Common Saturated Fatty Acids
Examples and sources for
butyric
acid to
stearic
acid
Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Examples and sources for
palmitoleic
acid to
arachidonic
acid
Triglycerides
Triester of three fatty acids with
glycerol
; can be
saturated
or unsaturated
Phospholipids
Two
hydrophobic
fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate; major component of
plasma membranes
Steroids
Characterized by
four
rings; functions in
membranes
, signaling, and emulsification
Lipid (Fat-Soluble) Vitamins
Accumulates in the body; includes
retinol
, 𝑎-tocopherol,
calcifero
l
Acrolein
Test
Tests for the presence of
glycerin
or fats; positive results for glycerol,
coconut oil
, lecithin, and oleic acid
Test for Unsaturation
Addition of Hubl’s solution to determine
unsaturated lipids
; positive for
unsaturated fatty acids
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