GENDER

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Created by
Jasmine Singh

Cards (13)

  • ANDROGYNY?
    AO1:
    • high/ equal male and female characteristics
    • good psychological wellbeing, adapt to situations, inhibited by Western culture
    • BSRI (Bem)
    • 20 feminine, 20 male, 20 neutral traits, Likert scale, mean
    • masculine, feminine, undifferentiated, androgynous
    AO3:
    + test-retest reliability (0.94) but low internal validity (self-reports)
    + idea, decreased stigmas, beneficial mental health, parenting no sex-role stereotypes but masculine more valued, socially sensitive, reinforces sexism
    -. temporal validity (70s) and cultural relativism of traits
  • CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES?
    AO1:
    • 23rd, XX/ XY, hormones
    • external genitalia same, foetus develops, testosterone vs oestrogen + oxytocin
    • SDN, hypothalamus, 2.5 bigger in males
    AO3:
    + Feder and Whalen (castrated vs oestrogen, rats) but extrapolation
    + Quadango (testosterone, female rats) but Berenbaum and Bailey (CAH, questionnaire, interactionist)
    + Money (Reimer, male) but idiographic, unethical
    + Francis et al (oxytocin) but socially sensitive research
    + Van Goozen et al (MtF, aggression, visuospatial skills, opposite) but biological reductionism
  • ATYPICAL CHROMOSOMES?
    AO1:
    • Klinefelter's, males, XXY
    • small testes, long legs, reduced hair, breasts
    • reading/ writing/ memory/ problem-solving, upset, social passivity
    • Turner's, females, XO
    • short, low hormones, infertile, no breasts, neck, puffy
    • strong reading/ language, poor spatial/ visual memory/ maths, social immaturity
    AO3:
    + RWA (earlier treatment, accurate diagnosis) but biological reductionism, different treatment, social immaturity, interactionist
    + comparing, differences in biology and behaviour but generalisability, clinical, different treatment
  • KOHLBERG?
    AO1:
    • cognitive
    • gender identity (2-3), identify yours and others gender, no permanence
    • gender stability (4-5), own not change over time, not consistent in situations of others
    • gender constancy (6-7), consistent in all situations/ people, actively search for gender appropriate information and models
    AO3:
    + Slaby + Frey (under 3, identify own not future, correct constancy questions focused on same-sex role model) but cognition change over time, so biology (Quadango) but biology maturation
    -. beta bias (Bandura, girls take on masculine, less likely to be punished, ignores social learning)
  • GENDER SCHEMA?
    AO1:
    • earlier cognitions more important
    • Martin and Halverson, schemas (gender)
    • after gender identity (2 to 3), knowing yours/ others gender, no permanence, search environment
    • recall ingroup, forget outgroup, very fixed
    AO3:
    + Martin and Halverson (under 6, forget and distorted gender-inconsistent photos) but role of biology (Francis et al, interactionist)
    + RWA, why stereotype, Duehr + Bono, institutional sexism but Bussey and Bandura (3 not label self, reacted stereotypically, social learning theory)
  • PSYCHODYNAMIC?
    AO1:
    • Freud
    • phallic stage (3 to 6), Oedipus Complex, Electra complex
    • anxiety, envy
    • identify and internalise = gender identity
    AO3:
    + Freud (Little Hans) but idiographic approach to nomothetic laws
    -. Bussey + Bandura (3, not label self, reacted stereotypically, social learning theory)
    -. androcentrism (weaker gender identity, reinforce sexism) but lack of temporal validity expected
  • SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY?
    AO1:
    • Bandura
    • direct/ differential/ vicarious reinforcement
    • identify with role models
    • modelling, mediational processes
    AO3:
    + Smith + Lloyd (swap outfits, hammer/ doll + pretty) but environmentally deterministic, parents, biology (Feder + Whalen)
    + Bussey + Bandura (3 years, not identify gender, gender differences, self-critical, greater for boys) but no parental reinforcement
    + Idle et al (parent gender) but artificial setting, mundane realism, ecological validity, social desirability
    -. similar cultural stereotypes (evolutionary)
  • CULTURE?
    AO1:
    • attitudes, beliefs, customs
    • distinguish groups
    • Mead
    • Arapesh (senile, responsive, cooperative), Mundugumor (violent, aggressive, power/ position), Tchambuli (males less responsible, emotionally dependent whereas females were dominant, impersonal and managerial)
    AO3:
    • cultural/ investigator bias (imposed etic) but scientist-orientated view, impartial
    • Williams and Best (20, males, dominant/ aggressive/ autonomous, females, nurturing/ affiliation, innate) but all exposed to Western media
  • MEDIA?
    AO1:
    • McGhee + Freuh
    • 40 boys, 40 girls, IT scale, TV time
    • IT score increased with more stereotyped toys
    • higher TV = higher IT scores (especially in boys)
    • but constant for both, increased with age (environmental reductionism)
    • Williams
    • notel, unitel, multitel
    • notel + unitel: weaker sex-typed views
    • 6 years later, more TV = more stereotypes
    • exposure increases view strength
  • GENDER DYSPHORIA - BIOLOGICAL?
    AO1:
    • distress due to discrepancy (external sexual characteristics and psychological experience of self)
    Genetic
    • BEIJSTERVELDT: similarity in cross-gender behaviour of monozygotic greater than dizygotic
    • HARE: correlation with AR gene variant
    Hormonal
    • GD in males due to low hormones in testes in womb
    Neural
    • ZHOU: BSTc in MtF similar size to biological female
    • SDN in females similar to GD males
    • GARCIA-FALGUERAAS AND SWAAB: hypothalamus differences in post-mortem after reassignment, compared to typical
    AO3:
    • Zhou (no cause and effect)
    • Rekers (pre-natal history, chromosomes, of GD boys, no abnormalities)
    • Drummond et al (12% of 25 girls met GD criteria as children and adults)
  • GENDER DYSPHORIA - SOCIAL?
    AO1:
    • atypical behaviour reinforced in childhood
    • GD lack stereotypical same-sex role model so imitate other
    AO3:
    + Rekers et al (46% GD boys have poor relationship with dad in pre-school, correlated with disturbances) but not explain no parental reinforcement
    + Stoller (GD boys and mothers overly close, greater female identification) but no cause and effect
  • GENDER DYSPHORIA - COGNITIVE EXPLANATION?
    AO1:
    • Dual Pathway Theory
    • Liben + Bigler
    • attitudinal pathway (similar to gender schema theory, gender attitudes determine engagement)
    • personal pathway (personal interests determine determine engagement)
    AO3:
    + RWA (risk of self-harm, relationship issues, social isolation and stigmas decreased) understand so help prevent issues associated with GD but socially sensitive research
  • SEX ROLE STEREOTYPES?
    AO1:
    • shared expectations, appropriate
    • learned as children are exposed to parent's/ societies' attitudes
    • reinforced by institutions (media, family, education)
    • films/ TV lead to socialisation, patriarchal families, sports/ uniform
    AO3:
    + Bussey and Bandura (20 boys, 20 girls)
    • tasks assessing attitudes to sex roles, cross-sex or stereotypical behaviour
    • rate/ play with specific toys
    • older children reacted more self-critically to cross-sex behaviour
    • boys more self-critical than girls (dolls, threw away)