gender

• sex - biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive structure and external reproductive structures
• gender - psychological and cultural differences between males and females, including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
• sex is innate and result of nature, whilst gender is at least partly environmentally determined and due to nurture
• Batista boys

  • 4 children identified as girls at birth
  • at puberty, changed into males - vaginas closed, testicles appeared, grew penises
  • affected by very rare genetic disorder, male genital wasn't external at birth
  • bonded female gender identity with very few problems of adjustment, quickly adapted to new roles as males
  • suggests gender identity may be flexible
• sex role stereotypes - culturally determined beliefs about what a particular sex's gender role should be. often an overgeneralisation about expected behaviour of individual based purely on sex
• brain scan studies

  • scanned brains of 949 young men and women
  • women have far better connections between left and right sides of brain. female brain is hard wired to cope better with several tasks at once
  • men display more intense activity within brains individual parts, especially cerebellum. male brain focuses on a single complex task
• Furnham & Farragher

  • study of TV adverts
  • men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings
  • suggests media plays role in reinforcing widespread sex role stereotypes
  • content analysis
• androgyny - individual who possesses similar amounts of characteristics regarded as masculine and feminine
• people who are androgynous have no problem in accepting sexual identity but accept masculine and feminine traits form their personality
• Bem believes androgyny exists, is measurable and desirable
• Bem's sex role inventory

  • survey to investigate masculine and feminine characteristics
  • made up of number of characteristics which were masculine, feminine or neutral
  • participants asked to rate extent of which characteristics were applicable to themselves - likert scale
  • two dimensional graph
  • individuals who scored highly on masculine and feminine scale were androgynous
  • claimed individuals who were androgynous were psychologically healthier
• BRSI scale would appear to be valid and reliable. BSRI was piloted with over 1000 students and results corresponded with participants own description of gender identity. follow up study involving smaller sample of same students revealed similar scores when tested a month later. this suggests BRSI has high validity and reliability
• one limitation of BSRI is links between wellbeing and androgyny are challenged. Bem emphasised that androgynous individuals are more mentally healthy because they're more able to deal with scenarios that demand masculine-feminine or androgynous response. researchers have argued that people who display a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted - these are highly valued in western cultures. suggests BSRI doesn't take into account different cultures.
• another limitation in BRSI is the questionnaire is biased and subjective. Bem's questionnaires can be biased because different people will have different definitions and may not understand. answers also may be influenced by social desirability bias. therefore, questionnaires aren't valid
• chromosomes

  • found in nucleus of living cells carrying information in form of genes
  • short sections of DNA that determine characteristics
  • typical human body is made up of 23 pairs of chromosomes
  • biological sex is determined by 23rd chromosome pair
• typical female chromosome pattern - XX
• typical male chromosome pattern - XY
• biological explanation suggests gender behaviour is being controlled by persons genes and chromosomes. males act masculine because of XY chromosome and females act feminine because of their XX chromosome. so gender behaviour is inborn and innate
• David Reimer

  • twins circumivsation - Bruce left with no penis
  • psychologist Money advised to be raised in a stereotypical feminine way
  • teens - got told truth
  • never adjusted as female
  • severe psychological issues
  • went back to living as a man
  • committed suicide
• hormones are chemical substances secreted by glands throughout the body
• androgen - associated with normal male development; eg testosterone
• testosterone

  • affects development before and after birth
  • male glands release testosterone which causes male foetus to develop external sex organs
  • associated with aggression and sex drive
• oestrogen

  • responsible for controlling consent of menstruation and foetal development
  • menstrual cycle
• Van Goozen

  • found evidence that gender behaviour is controlled by hormones and nature
  • male to female transsexuals were injected with oestrogen
  • showed less aggression but increase in verbal fluency
  • suggests oestrogen makes females less aggressive and better verbally
• Tricker

  • gave males either 10 week injections of testosterone or placebo
  • no significant difference in aggression
  • questions role of testosterone causing masculine behaviour
• oxytocin

  • women produce oxytocin in much larger amounts than men
  • stimulates lactation
  • reduces cortisol
  • facilities bonding - 'love hormone'
  • released in massive quantities during labour
  • both sexes produce similar amounts during amorous activities
• one strength of biological approach is there's research support. although Brenda was raised in a feminine way, he still had masculine gender identity because genes and chromosomes were making him feel male, suggesting gender was being controlled by biology. Van Goozen found male to female transsexuals showed decrease in aggression and increase in verbal fluency, when having oestrogen treatment. studies support role of chromosomes and hormones
• limitation of biological approach is there's overemphasis on nature. they ignore other factors in playing a role in sex and gender, such as environment. this is reductionist because they reduce persons sex and gender down to just their biology. there may be other factors at play in someones sex and gender
• limitation of biological approach is it oversimplifies complex concept. biological approaches that reduce gender to level of chromosomes and hormones have been accused of ignoring alternative explanations. other approaches stress changing thought processes during gender development or childhood experiences and the effect on gender development. just focusing on biological understanding ignores possible influences which point to more complex process
• atypical sex chromosome pattern - any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
• turners syndrome - XO occurs when females develop 1 X chromosome on 23rd pair, this means that affected individuals have 45 chromosomes
• turners syndrome physical characteristics

  • normal female appearance but no menstrual cycle
  • ovaries fail to develop
  • don't develop breasts at puberty
  • shield chest
  • low set ears
  • webbed neck
  • physically immature
  • retain appearance of prepubescent girls
• turners syndrome psychological characteristics

  • higher than average reading ability
  • performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is lower than normal
  • socially immature
  • trouble relating to peers
  • difficulty fitting in
• klinefelters syndrome - XXY affects males, have extra X chromosome on 23rd pair
• klinefelters syndrome physical characteristics

  • reduced body hair
  • breast development
  • softening of body contours
  • long gangly limbs
  • underdeveloped genitals
  • problems with coordination
  • general clumsiness
  • susceptible to health problems usually found in females
• klinefelters syndrome psychological characteristics

  • poorly developed language skills and reading ability
  • passive
  • shy
  • lack interest in sexual activity
  • don't respond well to stressful situations
  • problems with executive functions
• strength of atypical sex chromosome patterns is the research is its contribution to nature nurture debate. by comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome typical individuals, becomes possible to see behavioural and psychological differences. it may be logically inferred that these differences have biological basis and are direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure. suggests nature is more influential than nurture
• limitation of atypical sex chromosome patterns is lack of casual relationship. it may not be chromosomal abnormalities causing differences in behaviour. it may be environmental and social influences which are responsible for behavioural differences. socially immaturity observed on females with TS may arise from the fact they're treated immaturely. shows its wrong to assume that observed psychological and behavioural differences are due to nature
• limitation of atypical sex chromosome patterns is lack of generalisability. only around 1/3 people are aware they have klinefelters and significantly less will be subject to psychological research. individuals who look different are unlikely to be treated the same way as their peers. makes it difficult to generalise from case studies to all individuals who have the condition
• Kohlberg believed

  • childs understanding of gender develops in series of stages
  • with increasing age and experience, as cognitive development occurs, childs thinking and understanding about gender becomes more sophisticated and mature