Intro

• Psychology


  The study of the mind and human behaviour
• The term psychology comes from the Greek words 'psyche, meaning sour or mind and blogy meaning study
• Discussion about the 'mind' in terms of the soul and spiritualism can be traced back to early religious times (Babylonians and Buddhists)
• Psychology as a loose, general subject can trace its roots back to Ancient Greece (around 400-300 BC) to the Greek philosophers Plato (429-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• Psychology had its roots within philosophy (study of knowledge, reality and our existence)
• Topics on the 'psyche' such as mind-body dualism, reasoning, impulses, free will versus determinism, and nature versus nurture were debated and this set foundations for the study of human behaviour i.e. psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt


  The person who can be attributed to moving psychology away from its philosophical roots and establishing it as a separate discipline
• Wundt set up the first psychology laboratory, dedicated to experimental psychology


  1879
• Wundt became the first person to be called a 'psychologist' and was the founding father of experimental psychology
• Introspection


  The process of observing and examining one's own conscious thoughts and emotions
• Wundt's researchers were trained to analyse their own personal consciousness through thoughts and emotions
• Structuralism


  Breaking down consciousness into different structures in order to develop a theory of how the mind works
• Wundt's experimental method


  • Systematic - followed a set of procedures in an orderly way
  • Controlled environment - participants given a variety of stimuli and reaction times measured
  • Objective - researchers trained to analyse the content of their thoughts objectively rather than subjectively
• The emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline arguably came about in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the Institute of Experimental Psychology
• Behaviourist approach


  • Only observable behaviour is acceptable
  • Evidence must be objective, not subjective
  • Different scientific approach - focus on experimental methods to study observable behaviour objectively
• Behaviourists felt that the study of human behaviour should use experimental methods like the natural sciences and only study observable behaviour objectively, with the goal to predict and control human behaviour
• Scientific method used in psychology

  • Empiricism - all evidence, data, results, or knowledge gathered can only be obtained from what is directly observable
  • Objective - researchers do not let personal biases influence the research process
  • Systematic - observations or experiments follow a set of standardised procedures
  • Replicable - observations or experiments can be repeated by other researchers to determine if similar results are obtained
• Laboratory experiments


  • Allow researchers to precisely control variables, conditions and measurements
  • Standardised instructions and procedures given to all participants, allowing the study to be repeated by others to test reliability
  • Comparing the performances of two groups of people to increase confidence that the findings can be generalised
• Scientific research method


  Replication - Can the observations or experiment be repeated by other researchers to determine whether similar results are obtained, and, if so, are the results consistent? If results are not replicable, then they are not reliable (inconsistent), and the results cannot be accepted as being universally true.
• Laboratory experiments


  • The most scientific methods and are commonly used in psychology
  • Allow the researchers to precisely control variables, conditions and measurements in which learning happens to see the effects
  • The high control found in laboratory experiments means the same standardised instructions and procedures are given to all participants, allowing the study to be repeated (replicability) by others to test if the results are reliable
  • The great majority of experiments involve comparing the performances of two groups of people
  • The advantage over using just single individuals is that we can be confident that the findings can be generalised to the wider population
• The research process


  1. Begins with the development of scientific theories/hypotheses

  2. Constant testing and modifying or refining of these theories through controlled observation and experimentation

  3. Completes the scientific cycle of good science
• Approaches in Psychology


  • Non-scientific approach: Philosophy, Introspection
  • Scientific approach: Psychodynamic, Behaviourism, Humanistic, Cognitive, Social learning, Biological, Cognitive neuroscience
• Wundt establishes the first experimental psychology lab in Germany in 1879 and was the founder of the method of introspection - examination of one's own mental or emotional processes in a controlled and objective way. The event is considered the starting point of psychology as a separate science.
• Sigmund Freud establishes the psychodynamic approach, which focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behaviour. He developed a therapy called psychoanalysis.
• J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner introduce the behaviourist approach. They were critical of Wundt and psychodynamic approach as they believed it was not possible to study the mind (e.g. cognition, emotions) in an objective scientific manner because it is unobservable. Behaviourists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions (via conditioning). Therefore, behavioural psychologists study behaviour that is observable and measurable using laboratory experiments.
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow develop the humanistic approach. They rejected both the scientific approach of the behaviourists and psychodynamics as over-reliant on past experiences and the destructive forces of the unconscious. The humanistic approach emphasises the importance of free will in shaping our behaviour and the importance of personal growth (self-actualisation).
• The cognitive approach emerged in the mid 1950s, when psychologists began studying the mind's mental processes (e.g. perception, thinking, memory). Cognitive psychologists believe that we can make inferences (infer) how the mind works based on results from laboratory experiments. George A. Miller's (1956) article "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" on information processing is an early application of the cognitive approach.
• Around the same time as the emergence of the cognitive approach, Albert Bandura establishes the social learning approach. Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions. However, he believed new behaviours can also occur through observing others (observation learning) and therefore the role of mental processes (cognitive factor) is required, e.g. attention and memory.
• The biological psychology approach established the recently due to the advancement in biology for examining the brain. This has allowed psychologists to have an increased understanding of the underlying biological basis. The biological approach, including cognitive science, is now the dominant approach in psychology.
• The most recent development in psychology is cognitive science. This approach brings together the biological and cognitive approaches. This approach investigates how biological structures and processes influence mental states and behaviour.
• Strengths of the scientific method

  • Wundt's introspection experimental method is still classified as scientific
  • Replication is a key feature of the scientific method
  • Empirical method is now the main method in psychology
• Weaknesses of the scientific method

  • Not all approaches use scientific methods (e.g. humanistic, psychodynamic)
  • Studying humans in a controlled environment (e.g. laboratory) is seen as artificial and lacks ecological validity
  • Much of the subject matter in psychology is not directly observable and is invisible to our senses, so psychologists frequently use inference which is prone to inaccuracies and bias