Conservatism

• How do conservatives view human nature?

  It is essentially imperfect, or has limited capacities (often related to the Biblical concept of 'original sin').
• How do conservatives view society?

  As organic i.e. an integrated whole that is more than the sum of its parts, whose value may supersede that of the individuals within it.
• How does the New Right's view of society differ from that of more traditional conservatives?

  They have embraced capitalist modernity and libertarianism, and arguably a more atomistic view of society.
• What is pragmatism?


  Essentially the idea that 'what's right is what works'.
• What did Michael Oakeshott say that the aim of a conservative society is?


  To 'stay afloat in uncertain waters' rather than sailing towards a specific destination which may prove illusory.
• What kind of approach towards decision-making do conservatives take?

  A flexible approach based on experience and empiricism i.e. identifying what has or hasn't worked well in the past.
• What does the phrase 'changing to conserve' mean?

  Making changes gradually and in an organic/piecemeal way, to acknowledge changing opinions and social conditions while preventing disruptive or radical social upheaval (e.g. revolutions).

  This is an approach taken by conservatives.
• Fill in the blank: the fear of ______ underpins much of conservative thinking.

  revolution and violence
• How has the fear of revolution and violence come through in conservative thinkers' writing?

  Hobbes was writing in the aftermath of the English Civil War and Burke the French Revolution.
• Why is tradition important in society for conservatives?

  It stems from a respect for the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of our ancestors.

  It also provides a connection between past, present and future generations.
• What did G.K. Chesterton say about tradition?

  "Tradition is the democracy of the dead. It means giving a vote to the most obscure of all classes: our ancestors."
• What did Oakeshott say about tradition?

  "Just as a plant's new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explained by the plant's roots and branches, so a society's present direction stems from its past development."
• What do traditions provide?

  - Informed guidance on how we should live our lives (based on past experience).

  - A sense of stability/security that humans naturally crave.

  - A way of building society together and furthering a sense of integration and belonging e.g. traditions associated with a school or nation.
• What did Hobbes write about human life in the state of nature in his work 'Leviathon'?

  Life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short".
• How did Hobbes suggest that we prevent the state of nature from occurring?

  With an all-powerful government.
• What three human motives did Hobbes say would make life so bad in the state of nature?

  - Competition

  - Anticipation (diffidence)

  - Glory
• What did Hobbes mean by competition?

  - People often desire the same things, and there is not enough for everyone.

  - If there were obvious, significant differences in natural ability, the weak would surrender to the strong without a fight.

  - But in practice, almost everyone has a reason to think they may 'win', hence people fight over the goods they want.
• What did Hobbes mean by anticipation (diffidence)?

  - Even if you have not faced competition, you might do so in the future.

  - If you sit back, your adversaries are likely to grow stronger or have the element of surprise.

  - So you're therefore better off making a pre-emptive strike before they do.
• What did Hobbes mean by glory?


  - Some people will attack because they overestimate their abilities, fear dishonour, or simply enjoy the experience of subduing others (desiring 'power after power').

  - Even if you're not such a person yourself, the presence of such people reinforces your desire to 'anticipate' the attacks of others.
• In what ways do conservatives believe human nature is flawed?

  - Psychologically

  - Intellectually

  - Morally
• How are humans flawed psychologically according to conservatives?

  We are security-seeking, dependent beings who like to 'know our place' in social institutions.

  Change and excessive liberty challenges this notion, causing a great degree of uncertainty which diminishes individual happiness.
• How are humans intellectually flawed according to conservatives?


  Even with education we are not capable of becoming perfectly 'rational' as liberals assume.

  The vast majority lack wisdom and cannot comprehend the 'boundless and bottomless pit' of political life (Oakeshott).

  Therefore, conservatives are suspicious of too much democracy, especially direct democracy.
• How are humans morally flawed according to conservatives?

  Our moral failings are often seen as rooted in the 'original sin' of Adam and Eve, of whom we are all descendants.

  Humans are instinctively drawn to wrongdoing in pursuit of money, pleasure, power etc.

  Those tendencies can only be controlled, never removed entirely.
• How does Hobbes incorporate social contract theory into his views?

  The state of nature is so bad that it's rational for everyone to agree to instill an absolute ruler and obey their laws.

  In return, they are given protection of their lives, property etc.
• How may Hobbes not be a true conservative?

  He believes that the state is an artificial contract resulting from a rational decision to institute it (rather than a natural or organic entity).
• Do all conservatives fully support Hobbes' view of human nature as inherently selfish and violent?

  No.
• Does Edmund Burke believe that a perfect society can be conceived of?

  Yes, the 'crooked timber of humanity' can conceive of this, but is too flawed to achieve it.

  For Burke, there is a 'chasm between our desire and achievement'.
• Does Burke believe that humans are capable of wisdom and kindness?


  Sometimes, but this mostly stems from traditional social moves and the church's teachings.
• What does Burke mean by 'little platoons'?

  We are more likely to be altruistic to those immediately around us - our families and local communities.
• Instead of 'nasty, brutish and short', what does Michael Oakeshott argue that life would be without law?

  "Noisy, foolish and flawed."
• How does Oakeshott believe that humans can be benevolent?

  Humans are 'fragile' and irrational, but can be benevolent especially when their lives are guided by ethical customs and religious principles.
• Who are two examples of New Right conservatives?

  Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick.
• How do New Right conservatives argue that human nature is - and in Rand's case should - be driven?

  By self-interest, a yearning for individual freedom and enterprise/innovation.
• What role does the state have for New Right conservatives?

  The 'minarchist' (night-watchman) state has a role in conflict management and protecting property rights.
• What is meant by the 'organic' state?

  A theory which holds that society, or the state, is an organism - akin to a living being - which is potentially more important than its individual parts (citizens).
• How does Shakespeare convey the idea of the organic state in his play 'Coriolanus'?

  - He compares the role of the Senate in Rome to the role of the stomach in the human body.

  - The stomach is a storehouse for all the nutrients which dispenses them throughout the rest of the body; the senators collect grain and disperse grain to the rest of the city - without which it wouldn't function.
• What does Burke think is natural and desirable within an organic society/community?

  Hierarchy/power structures
• Who does Burke think is able to govern well within this society?

  As ordinary citizens are fallible and ignorant, only those with suitable experience and background are able to govern well (which feeds into his trustee model of democracy).
• What should the organic state ultimately maintain?

  It should aim to maintain historical continuity
• How does Aristotle define the state?

  A collection of individuals and sub-communities which promotes the highest form of human wellbeing (following on from his claim that 'man is a political animal')