Module 6

• The Philippine forest ecosystem currently consists of patches of old growth primary and second growth forest ranging in size from small to quite large
• Types of Philippine forests

  • Lowland Forests - Apayao
  • Montane Forests - Mt. Palali, Sierra Madre
  • Pine Forests - Baguio City
  • Coastal Forests - Bohol
  • Beach Forests - El Nido, Palawan
  • Karst Forests - Puerto Princesa, palawan
• Deforestation


  The natural or anthropogenic process that converts forest land to non forest
• Slash and burn agriculture or kaingin

  1. Swidden farming or shifting cultivation

  2. Felling of trees

  3. Burning of force debris

  4. Clearing the site for crop production
• Philippine Forests Overview

  • Lowland rainforest: Supports over 200-300 woody species and numerous other plant and animal species. Covers about 60-70% of the country's land area. Most degraded forest type due to over-harvesting of timber and conversion to agriculture. Vulnerable to soil erosion due to thin topsoil and low nutrient content.
  • Montane (mossy) forest: Located at 1000-3,000 meters in elevation. Dominated by oak and laurel families. Shrouded in thick mats of moss, excels at receiving and slowly releasing rainwater. Removal often causes catastrophic floods and landslides.
  • Pine Forest: Two types: Benguet Pine (Pinus insularis) in Central Cordillera and Mindoro Pine (Pinus merkusii) in northwestern Mindoro.
  • Coastal forests: Mangrove, beach, and karst forests. Mangrove forest: Adapts to varying levels of salinity. Beach forest: Found along sandy and gravely beaches along the seacoast. Karst forest: A limestone landscape formed by minerals in solution in natural waters. Only a few but highly distinctive species survive on coastal mountains due to limited soil moisture and nutrients.
• Rehabilitation cannot fully restore the original or former condition of a degraded ecosystem however it can provide substantial opportunities for conserving biodiversity and improving ecosystem functions including water management
• Force management rehabilitation to reforestation

  1. Has been used in the philippines to revitalize marginal and degraded public areas

  2. Performance success in reforestation by civil society is that fully monitored but can potentially contribute to forest rehabilitation if properly implemented
• Natural regeneration


  The process of allowing an ecosystem to recover on its own through natural succession
• Ecological enrichment


  A method used to repair or rehabilitate degraded areas through certain approaches such as agroforest
• Exotic species used in Philippine reforestation

  • Gmelina arborea (47%)
  • Acacia auriculiformis (9%)
  • Amazonia mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) (9%)
  • Philippine Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) (12%)
• Rehabilitation of forest reserves and protected areas

  1. Planting native wild food plants can attract seed dispersing birds and mammals

  2. It can also serve as a physical barrier to the influx of unwanted species into the forest interior
• Species as indicators


  Species can be used as indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem condition, ecological status, economic importance, aesthetic value
• Biodiversity Indicators


  • Keystone species
  • Sensitive species
  • Tolerant Species
  • Endemic species
• Umbrella Species


  Usually one with large habitat or range and which exerts a major ecological influence on the community
• Flagship species


  Plants or animals that have captured the support and sympathy of the general public; used as rallying calls for conservation
• Charismatic species


  Nominated as flagship species because of their appeal to the general public; many tend to be large, brightly colored, or endowed with unique and interesting features
• Key terms

  • Native species
  • Indigenous species
  • Endemic species
• Threats to Species (HIPPCO)

  • Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
  • Invasive Species
  • Population growth (human pressure)
  • Pollution
  • Climate Change
  • Overexploitation
• The Philippines is one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries of the world, containing two-thirds of the earth's biodiversity and between 70% and 80% of the world's plant and animal species
• The Philippines ranks fifth in the number of plant species and maintains 5% of the world's flora. Species endemism is very high, covering at least 25 genera of plants and 49% of terrestrial wildlife, while the country ranks fourth in bird endemism
• The Philippines is also one of the world's biodiversity hotspots with at least 700 threatened species, thus making it one of the top global conservation areas
• The National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992 (Republic Act No. 7586, NIPAS Act) provides the legal framework for the establishment and management of protected areas (PAs) in the Philippines
• The NIPAS Act of 1992 aims to ensure the perpetual existence of all native plants and animals in the Philippines
• NIPAS includes all areas or islands declared as national parks, game refuges, bird and wildlife sanctuary, wilderness areas, strict nature reserves, watersheds, mangrove reserves, fish sanctuary, natural and historical landmarks, protected landscapes, and identified virgin forests
• NIPAS encompasses remarkable areas and biologically important public lands, including habitats of rare and endangered species, biogeographic zones, and related ecosystems
• HIPPCO


  An acronym to remember the threats to species and drivers of biodiversity loss
• Threats to species and drivers of biodiversity loss

  • Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
  • Invasive Species
  • Population growth (human pressure)
  • Pollution
  • Climate Change
  • Overexploitation
• Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation


  • Rate of biodiversity loss is closely linked to the rate and extent of deforestation
  • Loss of habitat has been identified as a primary threat to about 85-90% of the birds, mammals, and amphibians listed as threatened with extinction
  • Habitat loss in the Philippines is caused mainly by the extensive removal of vegetation and fragmentation of forests
  • The Philippines is considered one of the most critical areas of global conservation concern because of the rapid loss of vegetation cover
• Invasive species


  An introduced foreign species that has successfully established itself in a new habitat and subsequently displaced native populations due to competition or predation
• Mechanisms of invasion by alien species in the Philippines

  • Transport of organisms to a new habitat
  • Establishment and propagation of the alien species in the new habitat
  • Uncontrolled spread from the initial population over large area
• Alien plants in the Philippines

  • hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata)
  • ayam (Lantana camara)
  • water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)
  • cogon (Imperata cylindrica)
• Alien terrestrial animals in the Philippines

  • Americal bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)
  • Golden apple snail (Pomaceae canaliculata)
  • Central American cane toad (Bufo marinus)
  • House mouse (Mus musculus)
  • Ricefield rat (Rattus exulans)
• Alien freshwater fish in the Philippines

  • catfish from Thailand (Clarias batrachus)
  • molly fish (Mollienesia latipinna)
  • common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
  • Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
  • janitor fish (Hypostomus plecostomus)
• Insect pests in the Philippines

  • shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta)
• Population growth (human pressure)

  • Population size increases through births and immigration and decreases through deaths and emigration
  • The average number of children born to women in a population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that determines the size of the population
• Pollution


  Comes in different forms (solid, liquid, gaseous) and composition (organic, inorganic) and causes a wide range of direct and indirect effects on ecosystems and living organisms including humans (plastics, organochlorines)
• Climate Change


  • Global warming has the potential of generating large-scale and long-term changes in the climate
  • The vulnerability of small islands is often associated with the increased occurrence of extreme weather conditions
• Overexploitation


  • The exploitation of plant and animal resources is a major direct cause of species extinctions
  • Over-exploitation of forests for timber and other non-timber products, either legally or illegally, has decimated the native vegetation cover
  • Over-harvesting of marine and freshwater resources
  • Wild animals are over-collected for domestic and international trade
• The Philippines is one of the few countries that is both a biodiversity hotspot and a megadiversity country
• Megadiversity countries are the small number of countries (17), located mostly in the tropics, which account for two-thirds of the world's biodiversity by virtue of containing very large numbers of species