PAPER 1

• IRON (II) IONS?

  AQUEOUS

  • [Fe(H2O)6] (2+)
  • green solution

  NaOH

  • Fe(H2O)4(OH)2 (s)
  • green precipitate
  • goes brown on standing in air

  EXCESS NaOH (aq)

  • no further change

  NH3 (aq)

  • Fe(H2O)4(OH)2 (s)
  • green precipitate
  • goes brown on standing in air

  EXCESS NH3 (aq)

  • no further change

  Na2CO3 (aq)

  • FeCO3 (s)
  • green precipitate
• COPPER (II) IONS?

  AQUEOUS

  • [Cu(H2O)6] (2+)
  • blue solution

  NaOH

  • Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 (s)
  • blue precipitate

  EXCESS NaOH (aq)

  • no further change

  NH3 (aq)

  • Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 (s)
  • blue precipitate

  EXCESS NH3 (aq)

  • [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4] (2+)
  • deep blue solution

  Na2CO3 (aq)

  • CuCO3 (s)
  • blue-green precipitate
• IRON (III) IONS?

  AQUEOUS

  • [Fe(H2O)6] (3+)
  • purple solution
  • some [Fe(H2O)5(OH)] (2+) makes look yellow-brown

  NaOH

  • Fe(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • brown precipitate (may look orange-brown)

  EXCESS NaOH (aq)

  • no further change

  NH3 (aq)

  • Fe(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • brown precipitate (may look orange-brown)

  EXCESS NH3 (aq)

  • no further change

  Na2CO3 (aq)

  • Fe(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • brown precipitate (may look orange-brown)
  • CO2 (g)
• ALUMINIUM (III) IONS?

  AQUEOUS

  • [Al(H2O)6] (3+)
  • colourless solution

  NaOH

  • Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • white precipitate

  EXCESS NaOH (aq)

  • [Al(OH)4] (-)
  • colourless solution

  NH3 (aq)

  • Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • white precipitate

  EXCESS NH3 (aq)

  • no further change

  Na2CO3 (aq)

  • Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s)
  • white precipitate
  • CO2 (g)
• VANADIUM?

  V (V)

  • VO2 (+)
  • [VO2(H2O)4] (+)
  • yellow

  V (IV)

  • VO (2+)
  • [VO(H2O)5] (2+)
  • blue

  V (III)

  • V (3+)
  • [V(H2O)6] (3+)
  • green

  V (II)

  • V (2+)
  • [V(H2O)6] (2+)
  • purple
• WHAT ARE DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE?

  allotropes of carbon

  -> differently bonded/ arranged
• ENTHALPIES?

  BOND ENTHALPY: reactants (break) - products (make)

  FORMATION: products - reactions

  COMBUSTION: reactants - products
• KEY CATALYSTS?

  • HABER PROCESS: iron
  • NITRIC ACID: platinum/ rhodium
  • HYDROGENATION OF ALKENES: nickel
  • CRACKING CRUDE OIL: zeolite/ aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide
  • CATALYTIC CONVERTER: platinum/ rhodium
  • HYDRATION OF ALKENES: phosphoric acid
  • ESTERIFICATION: H+
• CATALYTIC CONVERTOR REACTIONS?

  CO + NO -> 0.5N2 + CO2

  OR

  hydrocarbon + nitrogen oxides -> nitrogen + carbon dioxide + water
• OXIDATION STATE RULES AND EXCEPTIONS?

  • H: +1, except metal hydrides (e.g. NaH) where it is -1
  • G1: +1
  • G2: +2
  • Al: +3
  • O: -2, except peroxides where it is -1/ OF2 where it is +2
  • F: -1
  • Cl: -1, except compounds with F and O where it has positive values
• BLOCKS OF PERIODIC TABLE?

  s -> d -> p

  below

  f
• TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABLE?

  REACTIVITY

  • metals get more reactive down a group
  • non-metals get more reactive up a group
  • transition metals are mostly unreactive
• DROPS IN IONISATION ENERGY?

  GROUP 2 AND 3

  • G2 loses 3s electron
  • G3 loses 3p electron
  • p is a higher energy level so less energy to remove

  GROUP 5 AND 6

  • electron in pair easier to remove
  • due to repulsion
• ELECTRONEGATIVITY?

  • H-X
  • shared electrons in bond get further away from nucleus
  • as atomic radius increases down group
  • increased shielding effect
  • electronegativity decreases
  • H-X bond gets weaker
• REACTIONS OF SODIUM HALIDE WITH CONCENTRATED SULFURIC ACID?

  Cl-

  • steamy HCl fumes

  Br-

  • steamy HBr fumes
  • brown Br2 liquid/ fumes

  I-

  • steamy HI fumes
  • black I2 solid
  • bad egg smell H2S
  • yellow S solid
• HALOGEN COLOURS?

  DISTINCT

  • FLUORINE: pale yellow gas
  • CHLORINE: yellow-green gas
  • BROMINE: red-brown liquid (produces orange gas)
  • IODINE: dark grey solid (produces purple gas)

  IN ORGANIC SOLVENT/ WATER

  • CHLORINE: pale green in water/ colourless in organic solvents
  • BROMINE: orange
  • IODINE: brown in water
• CHLORINE REACTIONS?

  WITH WATER

  Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ HClO (aq) + HCl (aq)

  WITH WATER IN SUNLIGHT

  2Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l) -> 4HCl (aq) + O2 (g)

  pale green to colourless

  WITH COLD, DILUTE NaOH

  Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) -> NaClO (aq) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
• POLARISATION?

  INCREASED BY...

  • smaller cations with a higher charge
  • larger anions with a higher charge
• GIBBS ENERGY CHANGE?

  • +H / +S = high
  • -H/ +S = always
  • +H / -S = never
  • -H / -S = low
• LITHIUM CELL?

  POSITIVE ELECTRODE: Li+ + CoO2 + e- -> LiCoO2

  NEGATIVE ELECTRODE: Li -> Li+ + e-

  OVERALL: Li + CoO2 -> Li+(CoO2)-
• ALKALKINE HYDROGEN-OXYGEN FUEL CELL?

  POSITIVE ELECTRODE: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- -> 4OH-

  NEGATIVE ELECTRODE: 2H2 + 4OH- -> 4H2O + 4e-

  OVERALL: 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O
• EQUIVALENCE POINTS?

  STRONG ACID + STRONG BASE: middle of vertical

  STRONG ACID + WEAK BASE: top of vertical

  WEAK ACID + WEAK BASE: middle of vertical

  WEAK ACID + STRONG BASE: bottom of vertical
• COLOUR CHANGE OF INDICATORS ACID TO ALKALI?

  METHYL ORANGE: red to yellow

  BROMOPHENOL BLUE: yellow to blue

  METHYL RED: red to yellow

  BROMOTHYMOL BLUE: yellow to blue

  PHENOLPHTHALEIN: colourless to pink
• HALF-NEUTRALISATION RULE?

  • half way between equivalence point and 0
  • [HA] = [A-]
  • so Ka = [H+]
  • pKa = pH
• ACIDIC BUFFERS?

  acidic buffers are are weak acids and one of their salts

  • when alkali added, OH- added react with HA to produce H2O + A-
  • when acid added, H+ react with A- to produce HA
• BASIC BUFFERS?

  basic buffers are weak bases and one of their salts

  • aqueous base removes added H+
  • aqueous basic salt ion removes added OH-
• MOLECULE SHAPES?

  L (180)

  Tpl (120) B (119)

  T (109.5) Tpy (107) B (104.5)

  Tb (120/90) Tb (120/90) Ts (89) L (180)

  O (90) Spy (89) Spl (90) Ts (89) L (180)
• FLAME TESTS?

  • Ca (2+): brick red
  • Sr (2+): red
  • Ba (2+): green
• PERCENTAGE ATOM ECONOMY?

  (molecular mass of desired product / sum of molecular masses of all reactants) x 100
• IMPORTANCE OF PERCENTAGE ATOM ECONOMY?

  • fewer resources
  • less waste
• STRUCTURE OF ICE?

  • in liquid state
  • hydrogen bonds break and reform easily as molecules move about
  • in solid state
  • molecules no longer free to move, hydrogen bonds hold in fixed position
  • slightly less closely packed
  • ice less dense than water
• ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION IN COVALENT BOND BETWEEN ELEMENTS WITH DIFFERENT ELECTRONEGATIVITIES?

  • unsymmetrical
  • polar covalent bond
  • permanent dipole
• HOW DO VAN DER WAALS FORCES OCCUR?

  • random electron movement in molecule
  • induces dipole in another
  • slightly positive attracts slightly negative in adjacent molecules
• ENTHALPY CHANGE?

  heat energy change measured under constant pressure
• STANDARD ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION?

  enthalpy change one mole of substance is completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions
• STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FORMATION?

  enthalpy change when one mole of compound is formed from its constituent elements under standard conditions, all reactants and products being in their standard states
• DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM?

  • forward and reverse reaction occur at equal rates
  • concentrations of reactants and products remain constant
• LATTICE ENTHALPY?

  OF FORMATION

  standard enthalpy change one mole of solid ionic compound is formed from its gaseous ions

  OF DISSOCIATION

  standard enthalpy change when one mole of solid ionic compounds dissociated into gaseous ions
• ENTHALPY OF ATOMISATION?

  enthalpy change accompanying the formation of one mole of gaseous atoms from the element in its standard state under standard conditions
• FIRST IONISATION ENERGY?

  standard enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is converted to a mole of gaseous ions each with a single positive charge