GENDER

• UNIVERSALITY


  any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to both genders, despite differences and upbringing. 
• GENDER BIAS


  failure to consider differences between men and women
• 3 ways gender bias can occur:

  1. Male samples
  2. Male behaviour as standard
  3. Biological differences emphasis = explanations for behaviour that emphasise the biology of the individuals also sometimes underemphasise the role of social and external factors
• ALPHA BIAS (exaggerates)


  differences between the sexes are usually presented as fixed and inevitable. Differences heighten the value of women, but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males. 
• Example of alpha bias 


  psychodynamic theory = 

  Alpha bias favouring males - FREUD (1905) = in the phallic stage, desire their opposite-sex parent. This is resolved by identification with their same sex parent. 

  • Girls identification is weaker, creating a weaker superego and weaker moral development

  Alpha bias favouring females - CHODOROW (1968) = daughters and mothers are more connected than sons and mothers (biological similarities) - so women develop better bonds and empathy for others. 
• Beta bias (minimises differences) 


  ignoring differences between men and women often occurs when female participants are not included in the research process but it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes.
• examples of beta bias 


  Fight or flight = early research was based on male animals (because female hormones fluctuate). It was assumed to be a universal response to threat. 

  Befriend = TAYLOR ET AL (2000) = females show a tend and befriend response because of the oxytocin hormone, which there is more of in women. It reduces the fight or flight response. It is an evolved response for caring for the young.
• Androcentrism (male-centred)


  alpha and beta are consequences of androcentrism. 

  Psychology subject is male dominated - list of 100 famous psychologists only had 6 females. 

  Leads to female behaviour as being misunderstood.
• examples of andocentrism 


  feminists object to the category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) because it medicalises female emotions (e.g anger) by explaining it in hormonal terms. But male anger is seen as a rational response to external pressures (BRESCOLL + UHLMANN 2008)
• WHY GENDER BIAS EXISTS + CONSEQUENCES 

  1. Bias in research methods = 

  Research may be gender-biased due to the methods used to test/observe, therefore genders appearing to be different. BACKED UP = EAGLY + JOHNSON (1990) = meta analysis - found/noted that studies in real settings found women + men were judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings. SUGGESTS = there are serious issues with the way data is collected = creates a false picture of male-female differences. 
• WHY GENDER BIAS EXISTS + CONSEQUENCES 

  2. Sexism in research = 

  Women remain underrepresented in university departments (science). Undergraduates are mainly women, but lecturers are likely to be men EG a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks and such explanations are likely to mean that women underperform in research studies (NICOLSON, 1995)
• REDUCING GENDER BIAS 


  
  

  1. Reverse alpha bias =

  Develop theories which show differences between men and women, but that emphasise the value of women. BACKED UP = CORNWELL ET AL (2013) = found that research shows women are better at learning; more attentive, flexible and organised.
• (-) BETA BIAS 


   minimises the difference between men and females, which often occurs when research only studies one gender and then applies it to the other gender. E.g the fight or flight response suggests that men and women respond in the same physiological way to stressors in the environment. However research by TAYLOR found that women actually show more of a tend and befriend response than men, who are more likely to respond with action. 
• (-) GENDER BIAS 


   biological research often studies male animals, this is because variations in female hormones due to the menstrual cycle can act as an extraneous variable potentially influencing behaviour thus making it more difficult to assume cause and effect. Using male only samples is seen not to be an issue because what is true for males should also be the same for females so results can be generalised.
• (-) GENDER BIAS


  Feminists argue that lab based experiments put women at a disadvantage because findings created within a lab tells us very little about the experiences of women in the real world. E.g Research has always shown that women are more likely to conform than men, however this was challenged by EAGLY + CARLI showed that this was only true for asch-like studies in which a public opinion was required that was likely to disrupt group harmony. I.e if answers were not made public conformity was much less.