1 childhood

• Inequalities among children

  Mayer Hillman (1993) argues that boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses and go out after dark unaccompanied.
• Inequalities among children

  Jens Bonke (1999) found that girls do more domestic labour – especially in lone-parent families, where they do 5x more housework than boys.
• The modern notion of childhood (MNOC) - Pilcher

  Jane Pilcher notes that the most important feature of the MNOC is separateness. As children cannot cope with the idea of adulthood. Separateness can make children be seen as vulnerable and in need of secure children.
• Cross culture and childhood - Ruth Benedict (1934)

  Argues that children are simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated differently from their modern western counterparts in several ways.

  1. They take responsibility at an early age, children can become an economic liability, financially dependent on their parents.
  2. The introduction of compulsory schooling, the raising of school-leaving age has extended the period of dependency.
  3. Child protection and welfare legislation, the 1889 prevention of cruelty to children act.
• Cross culture and childhood - Jacques Donzelot

  Observes how theories of child development that began to appear from the 19th century stressed that children need supervision and protection.

  7. Laws and policies that apply specifically to children, such as minimum wage for a range of certain activities, like sex to smoking . Enhancing the difference in adults and children.
• Cross culture and childhood - Ruth Benedict (1934)

  Argues that children are simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated differently from their modern western counterparts in several ways.

  4. The growth of the idea of children's rights - the protection rom abuse and the right to participate in decisions that affect them (custody cases).

  5. Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates have encouraged parents to make greater financial and emotional investment in the few children.

  6. Children's development becoming the subject of knowledge.
• The globalisation of western childhood

  Some sociologists argue that western notions of childhood are being globalised. International humanitarian and welfare agencies have imposed globally. Western norms of what childhood should be - a separate life stage, based in the nuclear family, and school where children are innocent, dependent and vulnerable.
• The globalisation of western childhood

  Western style of childhood is spreading throughout the world. Although arguably such campaigns have little impact on the position of children in developing countries.
• Historical differences in childhood

  Childhood, by some sociologists, can be seen as an 'invention'. The historian Philippe Aries (1960) argues that in the Middle ages, 'the idea of childhood did not exist'. Childhood as a separate age-stage was short. They were not seen different from adults. Having no laws with distinction between adults and children. Facing the same punishments as one another.
• The modern cult of childhood - Aries and Donzelot (1977)

  • Schools came to specialise purely in the education of the young, reflecting the influence in the church, which increasingly saw children as fragile 'creatures of God' in need of discipline and protection from worldly evil.
  • By the 17th century, an upper-class boy would be dressed 'in an outfit reserved for his own age group' setting him apart from adults.
  • By the 18th century, handbooks on childrearing were widely available. The first sign of child-centeredness (mostly from MC).
• The modern culture of childhood - Linda Pollock (1983)

  Argues that it is more correct to say that in the Middle ages , society simply had a different notion of childhood from today.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - The march to progress


  The march of progress view argues that, over the past few centuries, the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today it is 'better than ever'. As Lloyd de Mause (1974) argues:

  "The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower level of childcare, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised, and sexually abused".
• Has the position of childhood improved? - The child-centred family

  Higher living standards and smaller family sizes mean that parent's are unable to afford providing to their children's needs. Children are no longer to be 'seen and not heard'. Instead they are the focal point of the family. Parents invest emotionally and financially to their children. Wanting them to live the best.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Toxic childhood

  Sue Palmer (2010) argues that rapid technological and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children’s physical, emotional, and intellectual development. These changes range from junk food, computer games, and intensive marketing to children.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Toxic childhood

  Concerns have been expressed about young people's health and behaviour. UK youth have above average rates in international league tables for obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence and early sexual experience.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - The conflict view

  The march of progress view is that the position of children has improved dramatically. However, conflict sociologists like Marxists and Feminists dispute this. They argue that society is based on a conflict between different social classes, genders etc.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Inequalities

  Inequalities are among children in terms of the opportunities and risks they face: many today remain unprotected and badly cared for. Children today experience greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care and protection.
• Inequalities among children

  Children of different nationalities are likely to experience different childhoods, and life chances. 90% of the world's low-birth-weight babies are born in developing countries
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Inequalities among children?


  Jens Bonke (1999) found that girls do more domestic labour - especially in lone-parent families, where they do 5x more housework than boys.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Neglect and abuse

  Adult control over children can take the extreme form of physical neglect or physical, sexual or emotional abuse. ChildLine received over 20k calls a year from children stating that they have been abused. Such figures indicate a 'dark side' to family life. Where children are the victims.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Control

  Children movements in industrial societies such as Britain are highly regulated. Fears about 'stranger danger' have led to children being driven to school instead of travelling independently. In 1971, 86% of primary school children were allowed to travel home from school alone. By 2010 this had fallen to 25%.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Control

  According to Hugh Cunningham (2007), the 'home habitat' of 8-year-olds has shrunk to one-ninth of the size it was 25 years earlier. This control and surveillance contrasts with the independence of many children in developing countries today.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Age patriarchy

  Diana Gittins (1988) uses the term 'age patriarchy' to describe inequalities between adults and children. Gittins argues that there is also an AP of adult domination and child dependency. Today, the power of men being head of the family may still assert itself in the form of violence against both children and women.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - Age patriarchy

  According to Cathy Humphreys and Ravi Thiara (2002) a quarter of the 200 women in their study left their abusing partner because they feared for their children’s lives.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - The 'New sociology of childhood'

  Childhood is socially constructed by industrialisation, laws and government policies, and institutions such as the family and education. There is a danger in seeing children as passive, who have no control in making their childhoods.
• Has the position of childhood improved? - The 'New sociology of childhood'

  Berry Mayall (2004) argues that the 'adultist viewpoint' may see children as 'socialisation projects' for adults to mould, shape and develop.
• The future of childhood - Disappearance of childhood - Postman (1994)

  As of postmodernism, CH is disappearing. With the rapid growth of the internet, can make the child knowledgeable to the adult world and information. Such as pornography. Postman describes how we are losing the innocence. And that the internet needs to be accessible at a later age. Otherwise there is easy access to ruining CH.
• The future of childhood - Childhood in postmodernity

  Christopher Jenks (2005) disagrees with Postman's beliefs about the disappearance of CH. He agrees with Aries in the fact that it is a creation of modern society.
• The future of childhood - Childhood in postmodernity

  Jenks argues that childhood is undergoing change as society moves from modernity to postmodernity. In modern society, adults' relationships are more stable. Whereas in postmodernity, the pace of changes and relationships become unstable.
• The future of childhood - Childhood in postmodernity

  Divorce has become much more common. As the process of them is much more efficient. This can significantly produce the feeling of insecurity. Relationships with a couples' children becomes more important. While your marriage may end in divorce, you are still the parent.
• The British government believes that there are 27 different types of class. The main 4 include:

  UC – You make your money from the land you own e.g., the duke of Westminster. Getting rent from investments.

  MC – Built around from having a degree and/or owning your own business. White collar worker (suit and tie for your work)  

  WC – Primarily earns their livings from the skills of their hands.

  UNC – People who play no role in society e.g., homeless people, travellers.