Ethics

• The formal study of ethics goes back at least two thousand four hundred (2,400) years, traced to the Greek philosopher Socrates
• In the past two millennia, philosophers have proposed many ethical theories
• Ethics


  The way in which we look at and understand life, in terms of good and bad or right and wrong
• Moral theories


  The frameworks we use to justify or clarify our position when we ask ourselves "what should I do in this situation?" what is right or wrong for me?"
• There are many moral theories and there is no one right theory. They converge and often borrow from one another
• Relativism


  The theory that there is no universal moral norm of right and wrong
• Kinds of relativism


  • Subjective relativism
  • Cultural relativism
• Subjective relativism


  Each person decides right and wrong for himself/herself
• Well-meaning and intelligent people can have totally opposite opinions about moral issues
• Morality is not like gravity, it is not something "out there" that rational people can discover and try to understand. Instead, each of us creates his or her own morality
• When faced with a difficult moral problem, who is to say which side is correct? If morality is relative, we do not have to try to reconcile opposing views. Both sides are right
• The line between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to is not sharply drawn. People are good at rationalizing their bad behavior
• Cultural relativism


  The ethical theory that the meaning of right and "wrong rests with a society's actual moral guidelines. These guidelines vary widely from place to place and from time to time
• Divine command theory


  Good actions are those aligned with the will of God and bad actions are those contrary to the will of God
• The divine command theory is not based on reaching sound conclusions from premises through logical reasoning. There is no need for a person to question commandment. The instruction is right because it is commanded by God, period
• The divine command theory often fails to produce arguments that can persuade skeptical listeners whose religious beliefs are different
• Ethical egoism


  Each person should focus exclusively on his or her self-interest. The morally right action is the action that will provide that person with the maximum long-term benefit
• Acts that may not benefit the doer


  • A mother giving her child the only bread
  • A father working overtime to provide for his family
  • A sibling stopping studies to allow others to continue
• Ethical egoism cannot justify a patently wrongful act
• Consequentialism


  The consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of the means taken to reach that end. The results of the action prevail over any other consideration
• Jeremy Bentham was an early and influential advocate of utilitarianism, the dominant consequentialist position
• A utilitarian believes in the greatest happiness for the greatest number. The more people who benefit from a particular action, the greater its good
• Consequentialism


  The consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of the means taken to reach that end
• Utilitarianism


  The dominant consequentialist position, believing in the greatest happiness for the greatest number
• Atoy Co, a basketball player in the 80s, was called "Buwaya" for taking long shots even if not proper
• Atoy Co took a three-point shot instead of a lay-up during a fastbreak, despite his teammates telling him not to
• The fans justified Atoy Co for taking the three-point shot because he made it
• The Supreme Court adopted consequentialism when they held the legitimacy of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo's presidency after People Power II
• The Constitution enumerates the instances where the Vice President can serve the unexpired term of the President, but the Supreme Court held that the people's will shall prevail over the Constitution
• If the university president tells the coach to deliberately lose game 2 in the championship series for better TV exposure, that would be following consequentialism
• Kantianism/Deontology


  An obligation-based theory that emphasizes the type of action rather than the consequences
• The lawyer in the hypothetical story about the rich old man's last wish adopted cultural relativism, not Kantianism
• Lawyers, policemen, and soldiers often adopt Kantianism in the performance of their duties, even if the consequences are bad
• It is morally wrong for a professor to not use the technology provided by the university for lectures, as it defeats the university's intention
• The persuasive power of the law is stronger than the persuasive power of ethics and morals
• The enactment of the e-commerce law deterred people from creating copycat versions of the "LOVE BUG" virus, unlike before the law was in place