Psychopathology

• Psychopathology refers to the study of mental disorders in terms of their causes, development, course, classification, and treatment
• Psychopathology describes a wide array of mental health conditions

  • Depression
  • Anxiety disorders
  • Bipolar disorder
  • Schizophrenia
  • Personality disorders
• Understanding and studying psychopathology is a crucial part of diagnosing and treating these mental health disorders
• Statistical Infrequency


  A person's trait, thinking, or behavior is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual
• With the statistical infrequency definition, it is necessary to be clear about how rare a trait or behavior needs to be before we class it as abnormal
• The statistical infrequency definition fails to recognize the desirability of the particular behavior
• Someone who has an IQ level above the normal average wouldn't necessarily be seen as abnormal, rather they would be highly regarded for their intelligence
• The statistical infrequency definition implies that abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual, which is not the case
• Any specific abnormal behavior may be unusual, but it is not unusual for people to exhibit some form of prolonged abnormal behavior at some point in their lives
• Strengths of statistical infrequency definition

  • It can provide an objective way, based on data, to define abnormality if an agreed cut-off point can be identified
  • No value judgments are made
• Limitations of statistical infrequency definition

  • It fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behavior
  • Many rare behaviors or characteristics have no bearing on normality or abnormality
  • Some characteristics are regarded as abnormal even though they are quite frequent
• Deviation from Social Norms


  A person's thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group
• Social behavior varies markedly when different cultures are compared
• With the deviation from social norms definition, it is necessary to consider the degree to which a norm is violated, the importance of that norm, and the value attached by the social group to different sorts of violations
• Strengths of deviation from social norms definition


  • Comprehensive - Covers a broad range of criteria, most of which is why someone would seek help from mental health services or be referred for help
  • Gives a social dimension to the idea of abnormality, which offers an alternative to the "sick in the head" individual
• Limitations of deviation from social norms definition

  • Social norms can vary from culture to culture, so what is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another
  • Norms can vary over time, so behavior that would have been defined as abnormal in one era is no longer defined as abnormal in another
• Failure to Function Adequately (FFA)


  An abnormality that prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect, such as getting out of bed each day, holding down a job, and conducting successful relationships
• Criteria of FFA


  • Personal distress (e.g., anxiety or depression)
  • Unpredictability (displaying unexpected behaviors and loss of control)
  • Irrationality
• The more features of personal dysfunction a person has, the more they are considered abnormal
• Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF)


  A scale used by clinicians to rate an individual's level of social, occupational, and psychological functioning
• Strengths of FFA definition

  • Provides a practical checklist of seven criteria individuals can use to check their level of abnormality
  • Matches the sufferers' perceptions
• Limitations of FFA definition

  • FFA might not be linked to abnormality but to other factors
  • Cultural relativism - what may be seen as functioning adequately in one culture may not be adequate in another
  • FFA is context dependent
• Deviation from Ideal Mental Health


  An absence of the six characteristics of ideal mental health suggested by Jahoda indicates individuals as being abnormal
• Characteristics of ideal mental health

  • Resistance to stress
  • Growth, development, or self-actualization
  • High self-esteem and a strong sense of identity
  • Autonomy
  • Accurate perception of reality
• Limitations of deviation from ideal mental health definition

  • The difficulty of meeting all criteria, very few people would be able to do so
  • Cultural relativism - these ideas are culture-bound, based on a Western idea of ideal mental health
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive and uncontrollable thoughts (i.e., obsessions) coupled with a need to perform specific acts repeatedly (i.e., compulsions)
• Common clinical obsessions in OCD

  • Fear of contamination (esp., being infected by germs)
  • Repetitive thoughts of violence (killing or harming someone)
  • Sexual obsessions
  • Obsessive doubt
• Common compulsions in OCD

  • Cleaning
  • Washing
  • Checking
  • Counting
  • Touching
• To the compulsive, OCD behaviors often seem to have magical qualities. If they are not performed exactly, "something bad" will happen.
• Some OCD sufferers will meticulously perform their rituals hundreds of times and experience extreme anxiety if prevented from carrying them out
• Cleaning/washing rituals are more common in women; checking rituals are more common in men
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  • Obsessions dominate ones thinking and are persistent and recurrent thoughts, images, or beliefs entering the mind uninvited and which cannot be removed
  • At some point during the course of the disorder, the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  • Obsessive thoughts often lead to anxiety, worry, and distress
• Behavioral characteristics of OCD

  • Compulsions are the repetitive behavioral responses intended to neutralize these obsessions, often involving rigidly applied rules
  • Most OCD sufferers recognize their compulsions as unreasonable but believe something bad will happen if they don't perform that behavior
• Strengths of the biological approach to OCD

  • It is testable via neuroscience research and there is evidence for genetic and neurotransmitter involvement
• Limitations of the biological approach to OCD

  • It ignores environmental influences and is reductionist, focusing only on one factor while ignoring psychological factors like cognitions
  • It is deterministic, ignoring the individual's ability to control their own behavior
• Genetic Explanations of OCD


  OCD seems to be a polygenic condition, where several genes are involved in its development. Family and twin studies suggest the involvement of genetic factors.
• The SERT gene (Serotonin Transporter) appears mutated in individuals with OCD, leading to increased serotonin reuptake and decreased serotonin levels
• The COMT gene regulates dopamine function, and a mutated variation of this gene found in OCD individuals causes decreased COMT activity and higher dopamine levels
• Strengths of genetic explanations of OCD


  • Identical twins show a higher concordance rate for OCD symptoms compared to fraternal twins, suggesting genetic factors are moderately important