Language and Gender

• Fishman - Conversational Shitwork 1983

  Dominance model

  Recorded 3 mixed sex couples (50 hours)

  Women's communication is based on their inferior position in society

  Tag questions are not weak
• Dubois, Crouch 1975

  Deficit model

  Men uses more tag questions in conversations

  Did not suggest their language being weak in any way
• Holmes

  Deficit model

  Questions are not a sign of weakness but used as a form of politeness, multi-functional and allow for clarity
• Spender

  Dominance model

  Idea of "male as the norm" where women are the extensions of men - men are always introduce first for example
• O'Barr, Atkins

  Deficit model

  Court room language (both male and female language = deficient)

  Language is linked to power, not gender
• Coates 1989

  Difference model

  Topic managements and shifts - men reject topics mentioned by women, but women will accept topics mentioned by men

  Men - discuss "male" topics = sport, business, politics

  Women - more likely to initiate conversation, but less likely to make the conversation succeed
• Jesperson 1922

  Deficit model

  Male language is the norm and women's is deficient
• Lakoff 1975

  Deficit model

  Women's main feature of speech - hedges, empty adjective, super polite forms, apologise more, tag questions, speak in italics, avoid swearing
• Zimmerman, West 1975

  Dominance model

  Uncooperative interaction features (interruptions)

  11 conversations - men interrupted 45 times, women only 2 times
• Keith, Shuttleworth 1997

  Women talk more and too much - more polite, indecisive, nag, ask more questions

  Men - insult each other, don't talk about emotions, talk like women and machines are the same
• Butler 1990

  Diversity model

  Argues that being born male or female does not determine behaviors - the idea of gender is an act of performance

  "we act and walk and speak and talk in ways that consolidate an impression of being a man or being a woman"
• Baker

  Shows differences in the titles "eligible bachelors" and "frustrated spinsters"
• Hyde

  Diversity model

  Men and women are more similar than old research suggests - the more research conducted, the more this pattern will appear
• Cameron

  Diversity model

  Contrasts in gender = dominant societal expectations

  Verbal hygiene - how men and women think we should speak
• Difference model

  Differences between the genders speech, but neither is better

  Suggests men and women use language for different purposes - men complete and women cooperate
• Dominance model

  Men have traditionally had more power in society and women have been used to being subservient - this is what causes language differences between the genders
• Deficit model

  Men's speech is the standard that all language is measured by - women's speech falls short and is weak
• Diversity model

  Gender is one of many factors that may influence peoples use of language - there may be more different between two women's speech than between a mans and a woman